Encyclopædia Britannica (United States)

Abstract This article studies Ṭūsī’s conception of the proper philosophical method according to his critique of Shahrastānī’s Kitāb al-Muṣāraʿa in the Maṣāriʿ al-muṣāriʿ . That conception provides a counterexample for three misconceptions of the entity called ‘Islamic philosophy’. The first, introductory section summarizes the three grand narratives about philosophy in the Islamicate world: the dismissive, the mystifying, and the dogmatic. Then the books of Shahrastānī and Ṭūsī are introduced. The main part of the article gives an account and analysis of the relevant passages in Ṭūsī’s work. Some elements of Ṭūsī’s philosophical method discussed include the role of observation, cognitive humility, reliance on logic and demonstrative reasoning, and distinguishing the philosophical discourse from religious speech, mystical and poetic discourse. In the conclusion, the evidence is summarized to show how the book is a counterexample for the three misconceptions.

Sabemos que a Encyclopédie francesa do século XVIII foi uma influência para a Encyclopaedia acephalica de Georges Bataille (1947), uma vez que este século deixou profundas influências para os séculos vindouros. Assim, a Encyclopédie e a Encyclopaedia acephalica nutrem semelhanças e dessemelhanças. Apresentadas na forma de verbete ou dicionário, são textos curtos ou longos. O verbete Homem, por exemplo, aparece nas duas publicações. O verbete paixão, de outra maneira, é contemplado somente na idealista Encyclopédie.

This article studies the violence in the spreading of Islam by conquest and the factors that influenced the development of Islam in Central, East, West and Southeastern Africa. Although the spreading of Islam in these territories had not been done by Islamic conquests, as perpetrated in North Africa and other regions of the Islamic world, the majority of the population in the countries such as Sudan, Chad, Mali, Sierra Leone and Madagascar are Muslims. The results of this article show that the emigrations into these regions had an important role in introducing Islam to the native inhabitants. These emigrations had occurred either freely, through trading by Muslim traders and religious scholars, or forcefully by escaping the political and religious violence perpetrated by Eastern rulers in different areas in Central Africa. In this emigration process, the effect of Islamic scholars, missionaries and Islamic traders together with communication intermediaries among the natives is striking and as the natives became familiar with Islam and Islamic culture, Islam gradually developed after generations of integration between Muslims and native tribes.

SummaryTargeting classroom teachers working to the US Common Core standards, this book draws on cutting‐edge psychological research to show the intricate interface between that approach and teaching for creativity, perhaps an opposite. It presents remarkable practical advice on how restricted curriculum classroom teachers can foster creativity in the learners. If—but only if—you are a Common Core classroom teacher, I recommend that you buy a copy of this book for your own use.Otherwise, if the content of this book is still likely to be relevant to you, you will probably find parts of it of interest or use.Mohammad Ali Salmani Nodoushan

Unfortunately only after online first article publication some imperfections were noticed, the article text should had read the following: At Footnote 22: al-Irānshahri At Footnote 27: Ibn cIbri Under Heading 2 Concluding remarks: For a long period of time, historians of astronomy have simply introduced al-Battāni (d. 317 A.H./929 A.D.) as the pioneer in Islamic astronomy (or even in the history of astronomy) who knew the possibility of annular solar eclipse.56

La publication architecturale n’est pas uniquement vecteur de diffusion d’édifices, de projets ou de doctrines constituées : elle peut élaborer et fixer des savoirs et des discours sur l’architecture et l’urbanisme. Les composantes visuelles de la publication, les figurations dans l’espace matériel du livre ou de la revue, jouent en cette matière un rôle non négligeable, qu’il convient d’approfondir. Cette étude porte sur les dispositifs visuels employés pour diffuser le projet de ville moder...

Retrieval performance can often be improved significantly by using a number of different retrieval algorithms and combining the results, in contrast to using just a single retrieval algorithm. This is because different retrieval algorithms, or retrieval experts, often emphasize different document and query features when determining relevance and therefore retrieve different sets of documents. However, it is unclear how the different experts are to be combined, in general, to yield a superior overall estimate. We propose a method by which the relevance estimates made by different experts can be automatically combined to result in superior retrieval performance. We apply the method to two expert combination tasks. The applications demonstrate that the method can identify high performance combinations of experts and also is a novel means for determining the combined effectiveness of experts.