Health Education Council

Background and objectives: Fluoride is supported by much scientific evidence for its carious preventing effect. It has an important role in public health, but an excess amount of fluoride results in a condition called fluorosis. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of fluorosis among basic schoolchildren aged eight to fourteen years old in the Sulaymaniyah City/ Kurdistan region of Iraq and find relations of fluorosis with age, sex, and other demographic variables. Methods: in a cross-sectional study design, among 174203, 798 basic schoolchildren were chosen by multistage sampling method in Sulaimaniyah city in October and November 2022 and examined by modified Dean’s fluorosis index to assess fluorosis status. A form was also provided to be filled out and signed by the parents, which contained informed consent, demographical background, and information about the study. Results: Of 798 candidates examined, 389 (48.7%) were male and 408 (51.1%) females. The prevalence of fluorosis among participants was 18.54%, and the majority of cases were questionable 69 (47.58%) and very mild fluorosis 69 (47.58%), the rest were mild fluorosis 10 (6.89%), moderate fluorosis 1 (0.68%), and no severe fluorosis. There was a significant difference in fluorosis status between ages (p<0.001), but other demographic data have no statistically significant effect on fluorosis status, except for education of the mother p value<0.0001. Conclusions: Dental fluorosis is a public health concern in Sulaymaniyah City, the cause appears to be dietary sources other than drinking water which we recommend to be further investigated before any fluoridation programs.

### Summary box The disproportionate mortality of COVID-19 and brutality of protective institutions has shifted anti-racism discourses into the mainstream.1 Increased reckoning over categorisations of people demonstrate that racial categories, while imprecise, fluid, time and context-specific, embody hierarchical power. We interrogate categorisations used in the UK, South Africa and the USA; their origins and impact. We emphasise needing to recognise commonality of power structures globally, while acknowledging specificity in local contexts. In identifying such commonality, we encourage use of the term ‘minoritised’ as a universal alternative. Various historical and geographical contexts give rise to categorisations, consistently exposing the use of power in creating separation. The UK term BAME (Black, Asian and minority ethnic) reflects decades of categorising groups of people referred to in the 1940s and 1950s as ‘coloured immigrants’; ‘New Commonwealth immigrants’ or ‘African, Caribbean and Asian’ immigrants. This terminology, highlighted their perceived differences and non-White identity. From the 1960s to the early 1990s, ‘Black’ was used by some, as a political term to highlight the shared history of colonialism and political and cultural entanglement that brought African peoples, people from the Indian subcontinent and Caribbean people of all heritages to Britain. BME (Black and minority ethnic), a governmental …

For many years, countries in the developing world have focused their attention and channelled their limited resources to increasing access to universal basic education. The Millennium Development Goals put forward by the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund and bilateral agencies recognise that emphasis must be placed on the development and provision of universal basic education. In Africa, during the era of the Structural Adjustment Programmes of the 1980s and 1990s, the World Bank advocated against tertiary education development in favour of universal basic education.KeywordsTertiary EducationCost SharingEducation FinancingEnrolment RatioGross Enrolment RatioThese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

Abstract This chapter highlights the evaluative process and selected findings from an evaluation of an Upward Bound program. The chapter examines and documents factors and strategies that contributed to the high degree of success experienced in the program.

Objectives: The aim of this study was to identify and critically review behavioural interventions in the HIV prevention and sexual health fields. Methods: Electronic and hand searches were conducted to retrieve relevant published and unpublished reports of outcome evaluations. A methodological review was carried out to identify those with sufficient methodological strengths to generate reliable conclusions as to effectiveness. Soundly designed studies were defined as those which met the four core criteria of employing control groups, providing pre- and post-intervention data and reporting on all targeted outcomes. Results: A total of 68 separate reports of outcome evaluations were located. Only 18 were judged to be methodologically adequate. Major problems found were lack of a control group or non-equivalent/unbalanced control groups, small sample sizes, failures to report pre-intervention measures, short follow-up, and high attrition rates. Academic reviewers were more likely than the authors of papers to judge reports of evaluations as providing insufficient information to assess effectiveness. Conclusion: Evaluation design in this field needs to be improved. Recommendations include more use of randomized controlled trials and the raising of publication standards by journals. AIDS 1995, 9:479-486

The first two articles in this series looked in different ways at relationships between libraries and health education units. We now look at a selection of bibliographic and indexing tools that can be used to identify journal articles, books and other materials of interest to health educators. Audio-visual items are not covered.

A wide range of non- profit organisations are now coming to see marketing as a useful tool. How does this apply in health education and health promotion?