Individual Differences

We examine multilevel models applied to intensive longitudinal (IL) designs. Many measurements in IL research are influenced by measurement error, which can compromise the consistency of estimates obtained through maximum likelihood estimation (MLE). While previous research has addressed the impact of measurement error in broader multilevel contexts, its effects on statistical power-particularly concerning cross-level interaction effects-have not been thoroughly explored. This study aims to clarify the relationship between measurement error and statistical power by deriving analytical formulas for the asymptotic bias and precision matrix of the MLE of fixed effects in multilevel models that account for additive measurement errors and autoregressive [AR(1)] within-person errors. Furthermore, we analyse how different sources of measurement error affect the standard errors of fixed effects estimates and the overall statistical power, specifically when both time-varying and time-invariant predictors, as well as the response variable, are measured with error. Our findings show that measurement error in predictors leads to downward bias in the MLE of fixed effects, whereas MLE estimates of fixed effects remain unbiased when there is measurement error in the response variable. Finally, we explore how these errors influence statistical power for cross-level interaction effects between time-varying and time-invariant predictors.

Meta-analytic research with undergraduate students reveals they tend to overestimate their text comprehension to a higher extent when they read texts in digital as opposed to printed format. This inaccurate metacomprehension of students’ own understanding could lead them to ineffective reading and studying decisions, such as early termination of a rather complex text. This study investigates the effectiveness of delayed keyword generation in improving absolute metacomprehension accuracy among lower-secondary (seventh- and eighth-grade) and middle-secondary (ninth- and tenth-grade) students when reading in print and on a tablet. Findings showed that lower-secondary students in the intervention group improved absolute metacomprehension accuracy compared to the control group. A similar trend appeared among middle-secondary students, where the intervention group showed lower predictions of performance but similar comprehension outcomes across groups. Contrary to our expectations, the intervention’s effect was independent of reading medium (print vs. tablet), likely due to comparable reading performance across both formats. These findings suggest that the delayed-keyword generation effectively enhances adolescents’ comprehension monitoring, irrespective of the reading medium.

The complex interplay between social cognition (empathy and theory of mind), the dark core of personality, and prosociality in convicted offenders has not been thoroughly explored, yet it is deemed essential for predicting and reducing criminal behavior. We aimed to address this intersection in a sample of convicted offenders (N = 86), using the EmpaToM paradigm. The dark factor of personality was a negative predictor of helping behavior in the EmpaToM, self-reported prosociality, and self-reported empathy. It was also negatively related to EmpaToM empathy, especially its Callousness and Sadism dimensions. However, it was not significantly associated with self-reported or applied theory of mind abilities. The negative effect of the Dark Factor on the EmpaToM intention to help in emotionally negative situations was mediated by decreased empathy measured in the same task. Our results highlight the importance of considering the dark personality core together with social cognition in the development of prosocial behavior and, implicitly, in increasing the effectiveness of specifically targeted rehabilitation interventions. Also, the current findings offer preliminary evidence supporting the external and construct validity of a modified EmpaToM for a prison context.

ABSTRACT We examined how event plausibility and suggested frequency influence the formation of false beliefs and memories using a blind implantation paradigm. Participants ( N = 855) rated 20 events (two critical, high vs. low plausible) for experience and frequency. One week later, 103 participants ( M age = 33.7; 62.1% women) who had not reported the critical events received a follow‐up survey suggesting they indicated experiencing four true and one false event (once or repeatedly), rating event belief and recollection before and after imagination. The high plausible event elicited higher false beliefs than the low plausible event under suggested single, not repeated experiences, with no statistically significant effect of imagination. False memory ratings did not differ by plausibility or suggested frequency pre‐imagination. False beliefs and memories ranged from 9.1% (low plausible repeated) to 52% (high plausible single). These findings emphasize how factors such as suggested frequency differentially shape false belief and memory formation.

The protein, reverse transcriptase, has become an essential tool for making DNA copies of RNA. The protein, reverse transcriptase, has become an essential tool for making DNA copies of RNA.

This study examines the dynamic interplay between workplace stressors, appraisals, and their affective outcomes through a daily diary design. Grounded in the Challenge-Hindrance Stressor Framework (CHSF) and Transactional Theory of Stress, four stressors-role conflict, role overload, emotional demands, and workload-were evaluated for dual appraisals as challenges and hindrances. Our investigation expands these models by assessing how the same stressors can simultaneously elicit both challenge and hindrance appraisals at both within- and between-person levels. Results reveal that all stressors were appraised as both challenges and hindrances, challenging CHSF's binary classification. Furthermore, both appraisal types mediated relationships with affective outcomes, with significant mediation observed for negative affect but not positive affect. Challenge appraisals were unexpectedly linked to increased negative affect, highlighting the complex consequences of stressors. The findings underscore the need for more nuanced and dynamic models that integrate stressor appraisals and their proximal affective outcomes, advancing theoretical frameworks in occupational stress research.

Abstract Background Children with neurodevelopmental conditions or differences often have overlapping diagnoses and complexities such as sensory sensitivities. Higher parental health literacy is linked to improved service use and outcomes for children. Methods In May 2024, Growing Different, a UK-based charity, conducted an anonymous online survey shared via social media. It received 395 parent responses and included questions on diagnoses, challenges, strengths, and information needs. Informed consent was obtained, participation was voluntary, and no identifiable data were collected. Quantitative data were analysed for prevalence; thematic analysis was applied to open-ended questions. Results 57% of children had multiple diagnoses. Autism, ADHD, and learning disabilities were the most common. Over 90% experienced emotional regulation difficulties and sensory sensitivities. Frequent health issues included anxiety, sleep problems, dental concerns, and hypermobility. 55% felt their child's strengths, such as creativity and kindness, were not recognised in services or education. 73% felt that online resources highlighting strengths would be very useful. 65% reported barriers to accessing reliable, tailored information; 86% felt that information about additional issues would be helpful. Respondents preferred information formats that included signposting, evidence-based materials, personal stories, clear language, and visual presentation. Parents also highlighted the need for accessible resources for their children such as Easy Read materials, social stories, and visual aids. Conclusions The findings highlight a need for co-produced, accessible, and strength-based resources that reflect the layered nature of neurodevelopmental differences. Integrating health literacy into public health strategies can support families, reduce stress, and improve equity and outcomes. Key messages • Parents of children with complex neurodevelopmental needs face persistent barriers to accessing clear, tailored health information. • Co-produced, strength-based resources improve health literacy and equip families to navigate complex care needs.

This study examines problem behaviors and social skills among children aged 4–6 who are exhibiting early signs of learning disabilities. The data were collected via online surveys from 153 parents of children in private preschools in Bursa in Türkiye. A quantitative research design coupled with the correlational method was employed. The results indicate that exhibiting higher levels of early signs of learning disabilities correlates with increased problem behaviors and reduced social skills, particularly in regard to social communication and interaction. Children exhibiting lower levels of early signs of learning disabilities show stronger social skills and fewer behavioral issues. These findings highlight the need for early intervention, targeted social skills training, and behavior regulation strategies to support children exhibiting early signs of learning disabilities.

Affect dynamics are often studied by means of first-order autoregressive (AR) modeling applied to intensive longitudinal data. A key target in these studies is the AR parameter, which is often tied conceptually to regulatory behavior in the affective process. The data are typically gathered using experience sampling methods, which are designed to pick up on fluctuations in affective variables as they evolve over time in naturalistic settings. In this article, we compare classical time-contingent sampling designs to episode-contingent sampling designs, which initiate sampling when an emotional episode has been signaled. We define emotional episodes as periods where an affective process strays relatively far away from its mean. Compared to time-contingent designs, episode-contingent designs leverage on increased affective variability, which can have beneficial implications for the precision of the ordinary least squares AR effect estimator. Using an extensive simulation study, we attempt to delineate which characteristics of an episode-contingent design are important to consider, and how these characteristics are related to estimation benefits. We then turn to an empirical illustration, showing how an episode-contingent design can be implemented in practice. We also show that various patterns we expect based on the theoretical parts of the article are recovered in the data. We conclude that episode-contingent designs can have marked benefits for the precision of the AR effect estimator, and discuss a number of challenges when it comes to implementing episode-contingent designs in practice. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).