Розвиток інноваційного бізнесу та міжнародної торгівлі воднем: інституціональне забезпечення енергетичного переходу для сталого пост-вуглецевого майбутнього

Global energy systems are undergoing significant structural changes in response to the overarching aim of mitigating and adopting to the geophysical impacts of climate change. One of the key strategies for enabling this structural change is the incremental transition away from fossil fuels and gradual uptake of renewable and low carbon energy sources. While remarkable progress has been achieved in electricity decarbonisation - which contributed around 35% global GHG emissions in 2025, a significant part of the energy system pie is still exploring suitable solutions especially for “hard-to-abate" sectors—such as steel manufacturing, chemical production, and long-haul shipping—where direct electrification is technically or economically challenging. With increased decarbonisation of electricity sectors using variable renewable generation technologies like solar and wind, there is also a growing need to balance and store the wasted energy from intraday supply and demand mismatch. Additionally, increasing severity of climate change impacts globally is accelerating these structural changes where some nation states have also attempted to raise the climate change mitigation ambition by suggesting complete phaseout of fossil fuels at UNFCCC’s COP28 and COP30. Consequently, there is renewed interest in global hydrogen economy and its direct benefits in circumventing majority of the issues highlighted above. Pursuant to this, under the Horizon Europe’s HyWay project, researchers are generating future scenarios for hydrogen economy and analysing the warming impacts of subsequent fugitive hydrogen emissions. In this research, hydrogen economy scenarios are being generating using MESSAGEix-GLOBIOM-GAINS modelling framework of IIASA. The modelling framework generates bottom-up energy system futures for 12 Global regions, while also capturing intra-regional and inter-regional energy commodity trade. The framework generates a least cost solution under various technology transition and climate mitigation constraints using linear programming-based optimisation. Using this framework, we generate a set of scenarios using national implemented policies, nationally determined goals, regional net zero targets, hydrogen generation infrastructure and trade policy data, and different global temperature targets for various Shared Socioeconomic Pathway narratives. In addition, some specialised scenarios also looked at more wide-spread use of hydrogen in the energy system vs. more confined use in industrial clusters. These broad policy and techno-climatic levers along with discussions with key industry stakeholders enabled us to analyse in detail a) the future hydrogen generation configuration at various time steps, b) displacement of fossil-fuels from global energy systems, and 3) sectoral utilisation of hydrogen especially in the industrial sector. Across the scenario solution space, we observe that from a current production volume of 100Mt H2 at a global level mainly for industrial use, hydrogen economy can surpass 400Mt H2 production by 2050 and upwards of 1000 Mt H2 by 2100. This would require significant investment in hydrogen economy infrastructure and possibly underwriting and repurposing of fossil fuel-based energy generation units. We also observe that from current domination of “grey hydrogen”, the energy system will transition completely to “green hydrogen” generation by 2050, with “blue hydrogen” acting as a transition enabler. The results also provide significant insights into regional and global dynamics of hydrogen economy including its climate impacts.

Green Hydrogen: The Holy Grail of Decarbonisation? An Analysis of the Technical and Geopolitical Implications of the Future Hydrogen Economy

International trade in health services appears to be increasing It may receive a further boost when liberalized and bound under international trade agreements, such as the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). Liberalization of trade in health services can create opportunities, but may also exacerbate preexisting problems. Moreover, once liberalization is locked in under international trade agreements, reversing policies becomes difficult, especially for developing countries. Making undue commitments to liberalize health services under GATS may therefore result in the loss of policy space. Yet the GATS agreement contains considerable flexibility to fine-tune commitments in accordance with national (health) objectives. But flexibility entails complexity, and for GATS the complexity is compounded by the fact that some of its rules are still being developed. Moreover, flexibility is meaningless unless used, and used well, which calls for a profound analysis of the alternatives and their implications. This article provides an overview of considerations related to (international) trade in health services and key features of GATS that are relevant to public health. It highlights that policymakers have something at stake in GATS negotiations; thus, they should take an interest in liberalization of trade in health services, analyze its implications, and give input and guidance to their country's trade negotiators. Moreover, to convey their concerns and aspirations effectively, they must learn the trade language, while staying focused on (public) health objectives.

Abstract: This chapter on "Global Business and Trade Strategies" provides a comprehensive exploration of the key concepts, economic impact, and historical evolution of global business and trade. It highlights the fundamental importance of international trade in promoting economic growth, improving efficiency, and fostering innovation. The chapter traces the historical context through an examination of early trade routes, the colonial trade era, the Industrial Revolution, and modern trade agreements like GATT, WTO, NAFTA, and TPP. The chapter delves into the drivers of global business, including economic policies, market demand, technological advancements, and cost efficiencies, and explores how globalization has reshaped business strategies to achieve competitive advantage. It analyzes the global trade environment through the lens of economic, political, legal, and cultural factors, and discusses key international trade theories such as comparative and absolute advantage. The roles of international economic institutions, trade policies, tariffs, and trade agreements are examined, along with strategies for managing cultural diversity in international business. Market entry strategies such as exporting, importing, foreign direct investment (FDI), joint ventures, strategic alliances, licensing, and franchising are thoroughly examined, with a focus on benefits, challenges, and best practices. The chapter also emphasizes global supply chain management, including logistics, risk management, and the role of technology. International marketing strategies, financial management, and legal and ethical issues are addressed, highlighting the importance of digital marketing, currency exchange mechanisms, compliance, and corporate social responsibility. The chapter concludes with case studies of successful global business strategies and a summary of key points, future trends, and recommended further reading. Keywords: Global Business,International Trade,Economic Impact,Historical Trade Evolution,Globalization,Trade Theories,Economic Indicators,International Economic Institutions,Trade Policies,Cultural Differences,Market Entry Strategies,Exporting and Importing,Foreign Direct Investment (FDI),Joint Ventures,Strategic Alliances,Licensing,Franchising,Supply Chain Management,Logistics and Distribution,Risk Management,Digital Marketing,Financial Management,Currency Exchange,Risk Management,Budgeting and Forecasting,International Trade Laws,Ethical Business Practices,Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR),Intellectual Property Rights,Case Studies,Multinational Companies,Innovation,Competitive Advantage,Sustainability and Global Business Strategies.

The primary purpose of this research was to identify and quantify the determinants of the number of minority farmers in the Southeast region of the United States during the time period, 1969 to 1997. A second objective was to determine the potential impacts of globalization and international trade agreements on the number of minority farmers in the Southeast region of the United States. Regression results indicated that the number of minority farm owners was responsive to the returns to agricultural labor relative to nonfarm labor returns, as well as to cotton and rice prices. An increase in the cotton price was associated with a smaller rate of minority migration out of agriculture in the Southeast region of the United States. To the extent that globalization is likely to result in higher cotton export prices, international agricultural trade agreements are likely to result in decreased movement of minority farmers out of agriculture in the Southeast region of the United States. A third objective was to compare occupational migration rates out of agriculture of minorities with farmers of all races in the Southeast region. The data demonstrate that minority farm owners exhibited distinctly different migration patterns relative to all farm owners during 1969–1997.

On January 1, 1994, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) united the economies of Canada, the United States, and Mexico, creating what has become a $19 trillion regional market with around 470 million consumers by today's standards. The distinction of NAFTA from other international pacts and trade agreements centers on its uniqueness as the first comprehensive free trade agreement, joining the economies of two developed nations to a developing one, ultimately achieving broader and deeper market inroads than any other international trade agreement before. Over the past two decades, however, NAFTA has been equally lauded and criticized. This research performs a qualitative analysis of objective formal reports and publications, as well as informal writings, to produce a work that reviews the strengths and weaknesses of NAFTA at 20 with a strong emphasis on the geographical implications of the free trade agreement, such as NAFTA's impact on the U.S. border regions with Mexico and Canada. The article concludes with an analysis of the future of NAFTA in light of new trade negotiations with the Trans-Pacific Partnership, as well as the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership.

This paper explores the current scope and direction of the emerging global governance of hydrogen within the broader context of the energy transition, where technological innovation and institutional change intersect. Hydrogen, as a critical yet complex energy vector, requires coordinated governance efforts to navigate its development effectively. To this end, we critically engage with key challenges facing the hydrogen sector and examine how institutional frameworks are addressing these issues. Departing from the broader scholarship on global energy governance, we conceptually leverage the socio-technical transition and innovation system literature to understand the complexities underpinning the development of the global hydrogen economy. We identify three overarching issue areas pertaining to the nature and role of hydrogen in the global energy system: end-use sector development, infrastructure and trade, and environmental and socio-economic sustainability. Each of these areas presents distinct challenges to hydrogen’s global governance, from stimulating supply and demand to managing geo-economic challenges and establishing comprehensive certification and standards. Through mapping multilateral institutions at the global and regional levels and their main objectives, we offer insights into the emerging institutional architecture related to hydrogen and identify potential gaps in current governance. Our findings suggest that while newer, hydrogen-specific institutions complement the broader agenda of the main established international organizations, the overall global hydrogen structure remains a patchwork of diverse actors and frameworks, each addressing hydrogen-related challenges to varying degrees. Our research contributes to a nuanced understanding of global governance in the hydrogen sector and advances scholarly discussions on how institutional and actor dynamics shape the emergence and development of new technologies.

Integrated sizing and scheduling of an off-grid integrated energy system for an isolated renewable energy hydrogen refueling station

This article provides a comprehensive overview of the complex relationship between international trade and economic growth. The research background and importance include the following two aspects. Global economic integration: Accelerating development, international trade has become a key force. Economic connectivity: International trade promotes the integration of global resources, technology, and markets. The theoretical foundation review includes the following two aspects. Traditional international trade theory: absolute advantage, comparative advantage, factor endowment, etc. Modern International Trade Theory: Further Enriching and Improving the Theoretical Framework. In multidimensional empirical analysis, the following aspects are included. Macro level: The impact mechanism of international trade on the overall economy. Optimize resource allocation: improve production efficiency and promote economic growth. Promote technological progress: Introduce advanced technology to enhance industrial competitiveness. Micro level: International trade effects at the enterprise level. Industrial upgrading: International trade promotes the optimization and upgrading of industrial structure. Regional level: Differences in international trade and economic growth among different regions. The research conclusions and policy recommendations include the following aspects. Positive correlation: International trade and economic growth correlate positively and significantly. Policy reference: Provide valuable reference basis for policy makers. Sustainable Development: Helping countries achieve sustained and healthy economic development in the process of globalization.

The global green energy transition towards a low-carbon economy via decarbonisation is in-creasing the demand for and exploitation of so-called critical resources, including lithium. The growing demand for lithium, which, as a raw material, is primarily found in countries of the global South, has sparked a new debate on the global interdependencies, unequal ecological and economic exchange and unevenness of the energy transition between the global North and South. In this context, concepts such as green extractivism, green colonialism and green sacri-fice zones have emerged. In this article, we build on this strand of literature, assuming that decarbonisation – as the overarching goal of the energy transition – influences the decisions taken over lithium mining and the narratives used for its legitimisation. It remains an open question, however, how the legitimisation of lithium mining is being shaped by decarbonisa-tion and energy transition goals. What narratives are being used, by whom, how and with what socio-political and socio-economic effects? In Argentina, there are numerous lithium mining projects, and conflicts only arise in a fraction of them. We focus on two lithium mining projects at the Salar de Olaroz-Cauchari, Jujuy, where protests against the mines have been largely absent. We analyse the narratives applied by governmental and corporate actors. The theoretical underpinning of the analysis is based on a dialectical understanding of narratives, whereby narratives are seen as contingent products of social and global-local (multiscalar) interactions. We argue that, in order to become powerful and to legitimise lithium mining, two core narratives are applied by its proponents: a green development and industrialisation narra-tive and a climate protection narrative. Both narratives are increasingly linked to global dis-courses of green energy transition and are part of an emerging green developmentalist disposi-tive that manifests in new institutions, laws and administrative measures to enforce lithium mining. Resumen: Legitimando la extracción de litio: Transición energética global y desarrollismo verde en Jujuy, Argentina La transición energética ecológica mundial hacia una economía baja en carbono a través de la descarbonización está aumentando la demanda y la explotación de los denominados recursos críticos, entre ellos el litio. La creciente demanda de litio, que, como materia prima, se encuen-tra principalmente en países del Sur global, ha suscitado un nuevo debate sobre las interdepen-dencias globales, el intercambio ecológico y económico desigual y las desigualdades de la transición energética entre el Norte y el Sur globales. En este contexto han surgido conceptos como extractivismo verde, colonialismo verde y zonas de sacrificio verde. En este artículo nos basamos en esta corriente de la literatura, asumiendo que la descarbonización como objetivo global de la transición energética influye en las decisiones que se toman sobre la extracción de litio y en las narrativas que se utilizan para legitimarla en las regiones ricas en litio. Sin embar-go, sigue siendo una incógnita cómo los objetivos de la descarbonización y la transición ener-gética influyen en la legitimación de la minería del litio. ¿Qué narrativas se utilizan, quién las utiliza, cómo y con qué efectos sociopolíticos y socioeconómicos? En Argentina existen nume-rosos proyectos de extracción de litio pero los conflictos sólo surgen en una parte de ellos. Nos centramos en dos proyectos mineros de litio en el Salar de Olaroz-Cauchari, Jujuy, donde las protestas contra las minas han sido prácticamente inexistentes. Analizamos las narrativas aplicadas por los actores gubernamentales y empresariales. El sustento teórico del análisis se basa en una comprensión dialéctica de las narrativas, según la cual las narrativas son vistas como productos continuos de interacciones sociales y globales-locales (multiescalares). Soste-nemos que, para hacerse poderosos y legitimar la minería del litio, sus defensores aplican dos relatos básicos: el del desarrollo y la industrialización ecológicos y el de la protección del cli-ma. Ambas narrativas se vinculan a los discursos globales sobre la transición energética y forman parte de un dispositivo verde desarrollista emergente que se manifiesta en nuevas insti-tuciones, leyes y medidas administrativas para imponer la minería del litio.

World energy economics and geopolitics amid COVID-19 and post-COVID-19 policy direction

The COVID-19 pandemic has created significant challenges for energy transition. Concerns about the overwhelming emphasis on economic recovery at the cost of energy transition progress have been raised worldwide. More voices are calling for “green” recovery scheme, which recovers the economy while not compromising on the environment. However, limited academic attention has been paid to comprehensively investigating the implications of COVID-19 for global energy transition. This study thus provides a comprehensive analysis of the dynamics between energy transition and COVID-19 around the world and proposes a low-carbon energy transition roadmap in the post-pandemic era. Using energy data from the International Energy Agency (IEA), we first summarized and reviewed the progress of energy transition prior to COVID-19. Building on prior progress, we identified the challenges for energy transition during the pandemic from the perspectives of government support, fossil fuel divestment, renewable energy production capacity, global supply chain, and energy poverty. However, the pandemic also generates opportunities for global energy transition. We hence also identified potential opportunities for energy transition presented by the pandemic from the perspectives of price competitiveness, policy implementation efficiency, and renewable energy strengths. We further provided an in-depth discussion on the impact of current worldwide economic recovery stimulus on energy transition. Based on the identified challenges and opportunities, we proposed the post-pandemic energy transition roadmap in terms of broadening green financing instruments, strengthening international cooperation, and enhancing green recovery plans. Our study sheds light on a global low-carbon energy transition framework and has practical implications for green recovery schemes in post-pandemic times.

Green hydrogen has become a central topic in discussions about the global energy transition, seen as a promising solution for decarbonizing economies and meeting climate goals. As part of the process of decarbonization, green hydrogen can replace fossil fuels currently in use, helping to reduce emissions in sectors vital to the global economy, such as industry and transport, as well as in the power and heat sectors. Whilst there is significant potential for green hydrogen, there are also challenges. The upfront costs for infrastructure and technology are high, and the availability and accessibility of the renewables needed for production varies by region. Green hydrogen production and storage technologies are continuously evolving and being promoted as the demand for hydrogen in many applications grows. Considering this, this paper presents the main methods for its production and storage, as well as its economic impact. Hence, the trend of governments and international organizations is to invest in research and development to make this technology more accessible and efficient, given the carbon reduction targets.

With ever‐greater trade liberalisation, not only border issues but also issues behind the border have come under the purview of international trade negotiations. Government procurement obligations undertaken by Canada in both international and internal trade agreements have resulted in a marked spin‐off back into the domestic economy ‐ a spin‐off that was presumably unforeseen in the course of the negotiations. The author argues that the domestic spin‐off of the bid‐challenge system, instituted as a result of these negotiations, still comes as a surprise to Canadian trade officials. In order to understand why the domestic benefits, particularly the federal bid challenge system, were unexpected, this paper retraces the negotiating history of Canadian procurement trade agreements and explains the role and mandate of the Canadian International Trade Tribunal (CITT), and its predecessor, the Procurement Review Board of Canada (PRB).

How the trade barrier changes environmental costs of agricultural production: An implication derived from China's demand for soybean caused by the US-China trade war