«И мы с зверьми природой поменялись»: проблема дегуманизации в творчестве Г. фон Клейста

This is the first comprehensive study to be undertaken on art made in the political prisons of the French Revolution between 1793 and 1795. Using a flexible definition of ‘the artist’ to encompass the wide spectrum of artistic producers in the eighteenth century, this research demonstrates that the imprisonment of artists took place on a much greater scale than has ever been realised. Hundreds of works of art were produced in political prisons and a significant proportion of these were sold and exchanged. Many have survived, but until now no framework has existed for their interpretation. This thesis examines a cross-sample of prison-made imagery, reconstructing the context of individual paintings, drawings and sculptures to propose possible meanings and functions of a unique oeuvre that has long been enigmatic to scholars. It demonstrates how and why works of art were made in prison and examines the circumstances of their exchange. Importantly, it offers detailed evidence to show how new functions for art evolved in response to changing political circumstances, as they affected both prisons and the people inside them. The new political prison system created in France during 1793, in the midst of a national crisis, is a poorly-understood phenomenon today, but it was also poorly understood by the people who entered and experienced it. Images offered one means of describing the nature and meaning of these new institutions for the people who were confined in them. This study harnesses an important and under-utilised body of prison-made images to shed light on the political prison as an institutional setting for the production and consumption of works of art. Broadly chronological in structure, this investigation into the art of the French revolutionary prison consists of a series of closely contextualised readings of individual works of art, aimed at recovering the original meaning that these images had for incarcerated communities at specific junctures in the Terror and the Thermidorian Reaction. Underpinning this analysis are two discrete empirical studies contained in volume II, a ‘political dictionary of artists in the French Revolution’ (Appendix X) and an ‘annotated catalogue of prison-made works of art’ (Appendix XI). These documents bring together, in a usable format, the totality of archival evidence and prison-made works of art discovered in the course of the present survey. They are accompanied by a set of analytical tables, designed to yield accurate data for some of the central questions that this study has posed, and to provide a foundation for further research on this critical facet of French revolutionary art.

Introduction to<i>Visual Arts Research</i>Special Issue, Body Cam: The Visual Regimes of Policing

Abstract

Personal Inviolability and 'Private Law'

Bu çalışmada Fransız Devrimi’nin Marksist yorumu ve buna getirilen Revizyonist eleştiri karşılaştırılacaktır. Bunun için nitel araştırma yönteminde kategorik ve sistematik içerik analizine başvurulacaktır. Çalışmada Fransız Devrimi, tarihin belirli bir zamanında meydana gelmiş tek bir vaka olma özelliği taşımaktadır. Marx ve takipçileri sosyalizmin kökenini Fransız Devrimi’nde aramışlardır. Bu da onları devrimin iktisadi dinamiklerine götürmüştür. Bu dinamikler içerisinde burjuvazi baskın bir unsurdur. 1950’li yıllarda revizyonistler bu yaklaşıma itiraz etmişlerdir. Revizyonist yazar ve düşünürlerin önde gelen şahsiyetlerinden Cobban, “Genel Meclis” (États Généraux)’te burjuvaziyi temsil ettiği iddia edilen “Üçüncü Sınıf”’ın burjuva bir karaktere sahip olmadığını öne sürmektedir. Bir diğer Revizyonist yazar, Furet, devrimle birlikte ortaya siyasal kültürün olayın doğru bir şekilde incelenmesini zorlaştırdığına dikkat çekmiştir. Marksistlerin iddia ettiğinin aksine feodal düzenin monarşi yargısının varlığı nedeni ile devrim öncesinde işlevini yitirdiğine inanmaktadır. 1789 yılına gelindiğinde feodal toprakların iktisadi mekanizması sürdürülebilir bir özellik arz etmemektedir. Devrimin, bu açıdan bakıldığında etkisi feodal dünyanın geriye kalan unsurlarını ortadan kaldırmakla sınırlı kalmıştır.

THE PLACE OF AVANT-GARDE MANIFESTOS IN EDUCATION PROGRAMMES

The article characterizes theatrical art as a combination of pictorial possibilities of different arts: literature, stage, painting, architecture, dance, etc. Characteristics, differences of types of theater are given: dramatic, musical (opera, operetta, ballet), pantomime, puppet theater, theater of small forms, which in a way influence the formation of the personality of the younger generation. It is shown that aesthetic education can be considered as a universal means of personal development based on the identification of individual abilities, diverse aesthetic needs and interests. The purpose of aesthetic education is determined, namely, on the basis of perception, interpretation of works of art and practical artistic and creative activity to form in a person a personal and valuable attitude to reality and art, to develop aesthetic consciousness, cultural and artistic competence, ability to self-realization, need for spiritual self-improvement. It is proved that artistic and pedagogical technologies are the most effective in the process of aesthetic education of personality; their structure contains: human resources (emotionally colored subject-subject interaction, a palette of forms and methods of organizing various types of artistic and creative activities), artistic and intellectual resources (works of art, artistic knowledge, ideas, meanings, values), technical resources (audiovisual, computer); types: local (specific methods for the development of certain skills and abilities), systemic (covering the holistic educational process, various arts). Forms and methods of art and game technologies (dramatization, pantomime, staging, dramatization) that contribute to the aesthetic education of the individual are presented.

Iconography is the description, classification, and interpretation of the subject matter of a work of art. Derived from the Greek words eikon, meaning image or icon, and graphia, meaning description, writing, or sketch, the word iconography is one of the least understood, most abused, and most flexible terms in the English language. Since iconography concerns itself with the subject matter and meaning of images in a very wide sense, it is nearly impossible to define its boundaries, and the term is now used to refer to areas outside of art history. This article deals exclusively with the Western world and does not refer to recent initiatives in the field in areas such as Asian, Buddhist, Chinese, or Native American iconography. Even though the term iconology was first referred to in the late medieval period and was brought into currency by scholars such as Aby Warburg and Erwin Panofsky at the start of the 20th century, it is usually seen as a separate area of research and will not be discussed here in detail. Recent work in the field of iconology has been significantly based on an anthropological approach to the work of art and has been spearheaded by such scholars as Hans Belting, Horst Bredekamp, Jean-Claude Schmitt, and others. The boundaries between iconography and iconology have become less clear over the centuries, and it is now frequently impossible to say where one begins and the other ends. In its truest meaning, iconology is the study of the work of art in its broadest context. Iconographical studies have now been applied to material that was previously considered outside of its remit. Instead of looking at traditional subjects such as animals or kingship it has now been applied to concepts such as light, sound, or narrative. This has been brought about because of the more holistic approach applied to studying works of art and our need to encompass elements outside of the work itself that also interact with it. As an intellectual activity, iconography starts with describing or reading an image, finding words that describe the content of that image, documenting what is seen, and trying to understand it. The verbal means we use to describe the visual range, from elaborate, evocative descriptions to short succinct words or codes; and many such standards exist. In the second half of the 19th century, photography began to reproduce works of art in quantity, and this impacted significantly on the development of art history and iconography as academic disciplines. The need to organize image collections into accessible and manageable subdivisions led to the creation of formalized and structured iconographic standards. One of the pioneering centers for the study of iconography is the Index of Medieval Art at Princeton University, which was founded in 1917 and still continues to support and direct research in the field as it has done for close to a century. From the 1940s onward, inspired by the Index and by library systems such as Dewey’s Decimal Classification, Henri van de Waal created the Iconclass system for the classification of iconographic subject matter, now a de facto standard used in many countries. Nowadays, the huge number of digital images has reinforced the need to use some form of subject access. Pattern recognition and automatic image annotation are only two of the directions in which researchers are working. The author would like to acknowledge Hans Brandhorst for his contribution to the article as well as colleagues in the Index of Medieval Art.

Reviewed by: The Bunraku Puppet Theatre of Japan: Honor, Vengeance, and love in four Plays of the 18th and 19th Centuries by Stanleigh H. Jones Sarah Johnson THE BUNRAKU PUPPET THEATRE OF JAPAN: HONOR, VENGEANCE, AND LOVE IN FOUR PLAYS OF THE 18TH AND 19TH CENTURIES. Translated and annotated by Stanleigh H. Jones. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2013. 320 pp. 20 illustrations. Cloth, $65.00; paper, $29.00. Chikamatsu Monzaemon is often referred to as the Shakespeare of the Japanese traditional puppet theatre, bunraku. His plays have been in almost continuous performance since his lifetime (in the early eighteenth century) and represent the majority of the repertoire of the National Bunraku Theatre of Japan today. Most anthologies that include translations of bunraku scripts, therefore, focus on Chikamatsu’s work; the few anthologies specifically dedicated to bunraku are almost all simply collections of Chikamatsu’s plays. Stanleigh H. Jones’s collection of four thoughtfully translated bunraku scripts flies in the face of this expectation, including not a single play by Chikamatsu. Rather, the collection explores the period after the so-called golden age of bunraku and Chikamatsu’s death in 1725. In the late 1700s and early 1800s, when these plays were written, bunraku was steadily overtaken by the other popular theatre of the time, kabuki. The plays represent influential writers from a key transitional time in the art form’s history. Jones contributes a much-needed educational resource for introducing and exploring the art of bunraku broadly and deeply. The translations, along with their introductions and annotations, open the world of bunraku to novices while still being rigorous enough to be of interest to specialists. [End Page 672] In the introduction, Jones offers a brief yet comprehensive survey of the practices and history of bunraku. Each of the book’s four translated scripts are then also given a specific introduction that presents a synopsis of the play, provides the cultural context often needed by a modern English-speaking reader, highlights the staging practices used, and relates the history of the play’s composition and production. The tone of these introductions lands somewhere between conversational and academic. For example, Jones indicates that the complexity of plot seen in these plays “is another hallmark of many plays from the 1740s and 1750s onward, especially those whose works built around historical events or personalities” (p. 5). He goes on to provide conjecture as to why this might be true, recognizing his lack of academic support and describing his personal theories. Jones’s insights are grounded through the multitude of helpful, but unobtrusive, annotations found throughout the translations. The selection of plays reflects the way in which bunraku is performed in Japan today. Full plays, single acts, and selected acts of a play all make appearances in the collection, as they do on the bunraku stage. The translations reflect the works most commonly produced of each play. For instance, while The Genji Vanguard in Omi Province originally consisted of nine acts, act 8 is typically the only act performed, and therefore the only act translated. Each script, moreover, is an example of a different aspect of the bunraku tradition. The Genji Vanguard in Omi Province, with its seven authors, represents an extreme example of the collaborative playwriting, common in this period. Mount Imo and Mount Se: Precepts for Women employs a unique staging technique, splitting the narration between two chanters and shamisen players on either side of the stage. Each chanter is associated with one side of the story that takes place in separate locations as a pair of star-crossed lovers are kept apart by political forces they cannot control. Vengeance at Iga Pass blends genre as a jidaimono (history play) with sewamono (domestic tragedy) qualities. It takes the concept of a michiyuki, or traveling scene, found as an act in most bunraku plays, and extends the traveling over four acts. The True Tale of Asagao exemplifies the very circuitous process of composition found in bunraku’s history. The story was inspired by a poem, written for kabuki, left unstaged for many years, rewritten and staged for kabuki, and finally adapted into a bunraku script and performance. These scripts are written...

The purpose of this paper is to shed light on different aspects of the hermeneutical problem in post-Kantian philosophical 'constellation'. In this domain, the problem of the relationship between the text and its commentary is theorized in terms of the antithesis between 'Spirit' and 'Letter', which clearly has religious roots. Therefore, the first part of the paper examines the historical origins of this antithesis, as well as its application in philosophical discussions which developed by the end of the 18th century about the problem of finding the 'true' interpretation to Kant's philosophy. The second part of the text, which is to be published in the next issue of this review, brings the duality of spiritual and literal interpretation into closer connection with the topics of Kant's moral philosophy.

In this ground-breaking work, Frederick Beiser argues that Georg Simmel was one of the foremost yet overlooked philosophers of the late&nbsp;19th and early&nbsp;20th centuries. Whilst Simmel’s work was crucial in laying foundations for sociology, his several books, including&nbsp;The Philosophy of Money, were deeply philosophical. Simmel's doctorate was on Kant's philosophy and that his intellectual outlook was greatly influenced by his lifelong love of philosophy. It is this philosophical Simmel that Frederick C. Beiser, a renowned scholar of German philosophy, explores in this fascinating and important book. Beginning with a helpful overview of Simmel's early intellectual life, Beiser considers the formation of Simmel's sociology and his views on ethics, before examining his theories of historical knowledge; the arguments contained in his most important work,&nbsp;The Philosophy of Money; the role of Kant's philosophy in his thinking; his critique of pessimism and his philosophy of religion. The second part of the book explores the deeper philosophical importance of Simmel's work, by considering his theories of the method and essence of philosophy, the philosophy of life and his important work on aesthetics. An outstanding and pathbreaking book,&nbsp;The Philosophy of Georg Simmel&nbsp;will be of interest to students and researchers in philosophy and sociology alike, particularly those studying&nbsp;19th-century philosophy and the history of sociology.

The purpose of this article is to consider the peculiarities of the reflection of the city – its architecture and inhabitants – in the works of Chernivtsi artists of the 20th and early 21st century, to analyze the differences between their views on the reproduction of urban motifs. The methodology consists in the application of the historical-chronological method, art analysis, and generalization, comparative and systematic approach. The scientific novelty lies in the introduction into scientific circulation of works by artists of the specified time, in understanding the evolution in the reflection of the city in the works of authors with various artistic orientations. Conclusions. In the paintings and graphics of the 20th – 21st centuries, several options for solving urban landscapes can be defined, among which the most common is a careful reflection of existing architectural monuments. In the 19th century in European art, in particular in Impressionist painting, the desire to convey not only the appearance but above all the spirit of the city became noticeable, depicting the townspeople, emphasizing the bustle or poetry of squares and streets. At the turn of the 20th-21st centuries the artists are no longer limited to the usual fixation of what is seen, but try to create a conceptual image of the city, to tell a story through iconic images and symbols, reveal their own position in particular and to preserve the authenticity of an object or the city in general. Such a variety of approaches for creating an urban landscape is partly due to differences in preferences formed during studies in art institutions and is also characteristic for the art of Chernivtsi – a city where people of many nationalities with different cultural traditions have lived side by side for centuries. Ultimately, the artists who worked here in the 20th century were often graduates not only of Ukrainian schools or universities, but also of well-known European institutions, including Vienna, Munich, Florentine, Berlin, Kraków, or Bucharest academies. While in the second half of the 19th – early 20th century the city often appears as the sum of certain architectural structures in the works of artists of Bukovina and visiting masters (F. Emery, R. Bernt, J. Shubirs), in the second half of the 19th – first third of the 20th century the artists mostly try to recreate the dynamics of urban life instead, sometimes depicted with a touch of irony, using the grotesque in the image of the inhabitants (lithography and watercolors by F.-K. Knapp, O. Laske and G. Löwendal). Subsequently, we meet emphasized mood images, in which the author's subjective perception of a particular motive, which he seeks to reproduce in a work full of emotions, is important (L. Kopelman, G. Gorbaty). A peculiar historical retrospection is present in the exquisite graphics of O. Kryvoruchko and in the distilled-finished sheets of O. Lyubkivsky, and the lyrical watercolors and sketches of N. Yarmolchuk represent the non-festive side of the city center. In O. Litvinov's paintings Chernivtsi surprises with desolation and restraint, and in M. Rybachuk's paintings it is distinguished by an unexpected riot of colors. Therefore, each of the artists creates his own image of Chernivtsi, which landscapes often become only a stimulus for the author's imagination, allowing him to depict a completely individual sense of space and life of the city.

Romanisation of the Central Balkans began with the Roman conquest in the 1stcentury, upon which tribal communities were organized into administrative units. The fact that the boundaries of pre-Roman tribal territories didn't correspond in total with the areas of the newly formed Roman provinces, led to frequent influences from neighbouring provinces and the blending of Roman art with local traits in the artistic sphere. Although in the 1stcentury different types of sculpture (cult, monumental and honorary) were present, throughout the whole period of the Roman reign cult sculptures and statues were the most numerous. Tracing the development of the art in the territory of Central Balkans' Roman provinces, it is clear that the northern parts were more under the Roman influence as the consequence of indigenous population more readily adapting to the process of Romanisation, while the southern parts of the Central Balkans area were more influenced by the Greek culture with which they were in contact from as early as the middle of the 7thcentury B.C. Sculptures, statues and reliefs were modelled upon Roman art canons, copying classical Greek and Hellenistic art, in bigger centres like Ratiaria, Singidunum, Viminacium, Naissus, Scupi etc. and localities along the Danube limes. At the same time, in the interior of the Central Balkans' provinces, works of art were manufactured upon Roman canons but with local traits. These were mainly recognized in the simplicity, frontality and linearity of the art works. This is particularly visible in the western and south-western parts of the aforementioned territory, as in some of the localities in eastern parts of the area. During the 2ndand the 3rdcenturies, beside skilful artisans from Greece, Asia Minor and the Mediterranean, who came and worked in bigger centres, local workshops also produced different kinds of artworks, copying Roman types in a more or less successful way. During the 3rdcentury particularly, different cultural and artistic influences met and blended, often transcending the administrative borders of the provinces, thus the forthcoming iconographic syncretism was present in the 4thcentury as well. From the end of the 3rd and during the 4thcentury, rich aristocrats, local elite and emperors ordered high quality works for decorating their estates and villas, following aesthetic criteria established in other eastern and western provinces. In the art works from that period, beside certain schematism and linearity in the modelling, a blending of similar iconographic details is emphasized as the presence of local artistic traits. Therefore, the continuance of manufacturing of the sculpture by copying classical Greek works of art and of the locally produced works of art with traits of indigenous material cultures is present until the end of the Roman reign.

Beholding works of art is undoubtedly the most essential technique of art history. Yet the way pieces of art have been contemplated at different points in time has to date only been studied occasionally. The few existing publications merely address this issue using texts, i. e. they try to reconstruct the attitudes, convictions and interests art was dealt with in various epochs with the help of contemporary writings. Pictorial representations of art viewers, however, have not been examined with regard to such questions systematically. This is the objective of the present study. ///// The corpus here is constituted by European paintings, prints and drawings from the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, showing persons occupied with works of art; of course also figures who – perhaps demonstratively – are not interested in the pieces on display can be of significance. Apart from the persons depicted – their social status, their gender- and age-related composition – the context in which they are shown should also be taken into consideration: is it a public event or more likely a private rendezvous? Is the love of art the actual reason for this get-together? Is it simply a factual account of a collection with staffage figures or a representative portrait of a proud collector with his treasures and prestigious guests? And with respect to the development of the motif, it must be borne in mind when, where, in which medium and in which thematic context it appears. ///// After some occasional examples in the 15th and 16th centuries representations of art viewers occur more often only in the 17th century. For quite a while these are mainly restricted to Antwerp or artists educated there. Initially the galleries depicted are fictitious, demonstrating a preoccupation with the objects on display (at that time there were usually still some NATURALIA and SCIENTIFICA along with the paintings) oriented towards knowledge and cognition. Not until the 1630s do some examples appear with visitors showing a mere incidental interest in the exhibited pieces. ‘Portraits’ of existing collections are very seldom in this period. ///// In the 18th century there came to the depictions of - now actually existing - collections representations of the art trade and exhibitions. This development was accompanied by a significant geographical propagation of the motif, the most important places being Paris, London and Rome. Apart from this it can be observed that most of the depictions were now prints - especially this medium saw the further advancement of the motif. This way one could portray the events in question more immediately and of course produce for a wider public. Along with the saloncritiques, this circumstance probably contributed substantially to the considerable popularity of the exhibitions and thus also to a decisive step in the process of opening art to a wider social spectrum: not only do patricians and aristocracy appear, but also representatives of the middle and sometimes even lower classes. ///// In the 19th century access to art was further ‘democratised’, with the idea of the museum as an institution for the education of the whole public – including the working class – spreading throughout Europe from post-revolutionary France. Even if this development is not so clearly reflected in the depictions, the impression given is that representatives of the lower classes are now appearing more often in connection with the contemplation of art. This and the increasing interest of artists in the individual and sometimes peculiar behaviour of the visitors – mostly of museums and exhibitions – expands the range of variation of the motif.

Contextualising and understanding is not a new issue in the humanities. On the contrary: they belong to the basic assumptions of their specific early modern way of dealing with the human world in academic discourses. They originated in the fundamental change in historical sense generation from the exemplary to the genetic mode at the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. They became essential for the academic disciplines of the humanities with their rational approach to the human world. This can easily be made possible by referring to the pregiven dominating way of doing history in pre-modern times. Here it was the exemplary way of making sense of the past which shaped historical thinking in most, if not all cultures for a very long time. It was exactly this logic of historical thinking against which the specifically modern one, the logic of genetic sense generation, was opposed. Exemplary thinking was interested in deriving general rules of human conduct from special cases of historical events. Historical experience was a great shelter of morality and political insight (historia magistra vitae). At the end of the paper an idea is presented how this mode of thinking in the humanities can be furthermore developed in respect to the concept of humankind as a basic category of understanding.