Синтаксис комитативных конструкций с показателем социатива -лса в баргузинском диалекте бурятского языка

The syntactic monoid of a language is generalized to the level of a symmetric monoidal closed category D. This allows for a uniform treatment of several notions of syntactic algebras known in the literature, including the syntactic monoids of Rabin and Scott (D = sets), the syntactic semirings of Polak (D = semilattices), and the syntactic associative algebras of Reutenauer (D = vector spaces). Assuming that D is a commutative variety of algebras, we prove that the syntactic D-monoid of a language L can be constructed as a quotient of a free D-monoid modulo the syntactic congruence of L, and that it is isomorphic to the transition D-monoid of the minimal automaton for L in D. Furthermore, in the case where the variety D is locally finite, we characterize the regular languages as precisely the languages with finite syntactic D-monoids.

Background and aims Recent research indicates that children with Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) often also score lower than their peers with typical development (TD) on tasks testing nonverbal executive functioning (EF). This study investigated whether there is evidence that children with DLD use linguistic and EF resources to support their lexical and syntactic development. Three questions were addressed: (1) How do children with DLD develop in the domains of lexicon and syntax, and how does their development compare to TD controls? (2) To what extent do children with DLD show reciprocal relations between lexical and syntactic skills, and how does this compare to TD controls? (3) Is EF ability related to DLD children’s lexical and syntactic skills, and how does this compare to TD controls? Methods Data from 117 children (N DLD = 78; N TD = 39) were collected three times with yearly intervals. At time 1, the children were 5 or 6 years old. Standardized receptive vocabulary and sentence repetition tests measured lexicon and syntax, respectively. Nonverbal EF tasks tested selective attention, interference control and working memory. Cross-lagged analyses were conducted to determine the direction of relationships. Results Both groups showed stable lexical and syntactic growth. In children with DLD, but not in TD controls, syntactic skills predicted lexical skills. In the DLD group, EF predicted lexical skills. Reversely, in the TD group, lexical skills predicted EF. Conclusions The results of this study are consistent with the hypothesis that the lexical development of children with DLD is supported by both their verbal abilities in the domain of syntax and their nonverbal EF abilities. Implications Interventions that improve the syntactic and EF abilities of children with DLD may have spreading effects and positively impact on word learning by children with DLD.

This thesis proposes a novel way of performing type checking, whose results are incremental, depending on the provided local information. This new way of type checking is called co-contextual, where all context information of expressions, methods, classes, etc., is removed. Instead, we introduce corresponding structures using requirements. Standard type systems are translated to the co-contextual ones systematically using dualism as technique. Type systems play an important role to prevent execution errors from occurring during runtime. They are used to check programs statically for potential errors. Programs are type checked against a given set of rules. Depending on these rules programs are well-typed or not. The set of these rules is called typing rules. Each type rule associates types to the constructs of a program given a certain context. There can be different forms of contexts, depending on the features of the typed programming language. Functional languages use a typing context of variables and their types; object-oriented (OO) languages use additional class tables. Class tables are used for example to ensure that method and class declarations are well-typed. Type checking is performed top-down. While traversing the syntax tree of a program, typing contexts are extended with information on the expressions and their types. In case of OO, class tables are extended with clauses from class declarations, including the class members, i.e., fields, methods, or constructors. Contexts are passed through the nodes of the syntax tree in order to coordinate type checking between them. Therefore, while traversing the syntax tree top-down, the type checker creates dependencies between otherwise independent subexpressions. This way, it inhibits incrementalization and parallelization of type checking. That is, a change to a node of the syntax tree would require to redo the type check of the whole syntax tree. In this thesis a novel formulation of type systems is proposed, in order to remove dependencies between subexpressions. We propose a co-contextual formulation of typing rules that depends only on the local program constructs, e.g., expressions, methods, classes. The co-contextual typing rules have as conclusion a type and sets of requirements. That is, contexts and class tables are replaced by the dual concept of context and class table requirements. In addition, operations on contexts and class tables are replaced by new dual operations on requirements. The co-contextual type checker traverses a syntax tree bottom-up and merges context requirements of independently checked subexpressions. We describe a method for systematically constructing a co-contextual formulation of type rules from a regular context-based formulation and we show how co-contextual type rules give rise to incremental type checking. We derive co-contextual type checkers for functional and OO languages. As a representative of functional languages we consider PCF and extensions of it: records, parametric polymorphism, structural subtyping and let-polymorphism. Also, we investigate featherweight java (FJ) as the basis of OO languages and extensions of it: method overloading and generics. We build a1 co-contextual type checker for FJ enabling key features of OO languages: subtype polymorphism, nominal typing and implementation inheritance. The dualism between the co-contextual and contextual type systems preserves the correctness of the contextual calculus. That is, we prove the correctness of the co-contextual calculus via the equivalence between contextual type rules and their co-contextual formulations. We implemented an incremental type checker for PCF along with a performance evaluation showing that co-contextual type checking has performance comparable to standard context-based type checking, and incrementalization can improve performance significantly. Regarding FJ, we implemented a co-contextual type checker with incrementalization and compared its performance against javac on a number of realistic programs. Our performance evaluation shows significant speedups for the co-contextual type checker with incrementalization in comparison to javac.

قواعد نحوی در زبان عربی از ارکان مهم آموزش این زبان به شمار می‌آید. اما این امر پیوسته با مشکل پیچیدگی قواعد روبرو بوده است. بدون شک عوامل متعددی در مشکل بودن آموزش و فراگیری قواعد نحوی دخیل است. از جمله این عوامل می‌توان به خشک و بی‌روح بودن این ماده آموزشی، قدیمی بودن روش‌های تدریس، عدم توجه به هدفمندی تعلیم و تعلم آن اشاره کرد. علاوه بر این طبیعت نحو به خودی خود دارای نوعی تحلیل فلسفی و اصطلاحات و جزئیات فراوان است که فهم آن را نه تنها برای فراگیران بلکه برای مدرسان نیز با مشکل مواجه کرده است. از این رو ساده کردن نحو برای آموزش آن ضرورتی اجتناب ‌ناپذیر است. البته، تلاش‌هایی از گذشته تا حال به این منظور صورت گرفته است. با توجه به اهمیت مسئله، اگر تسهیل بدون قاعده و بی‌توجه به مباحث آموزشی و تربیتی انجام پذیرد راه به جایی نخواهد برد. برای این منظور باید از علوم زبان‌شناسی و فن آموزش نیز بهره برد. این مقاله در پی آن است تا از خلال مطالب مورد بحث به این سوالات پاسخ دهد: تلاش‌هایی که از گذشته تا حال در جهت تسهیل نحو انجام گرفته تا چه حد با مفهوم اجرائی تسهیل آموزش انطباق دارد؟ چه راهکارهایی برای ساده سازی آموزش نحو پیشنهاد می‌شود تا به نتیجه مطلوب دست یابد؟ کلیدواژه‌ها: نحو، تسهیل، آموزش، یادگیرنده.

The aim of this study was to examine the possible link between linguistic accuracy and syntactic complexity in written skills in a sample of native Greek speakers who are learning Spanish as a foreign language. Considering the syntactic complexity as an index of interest in addressing written production a comparison between the native and nonnative written production was also pursued with regards to the degree of syntactic elaboration. To this end, a narrative task under time pressure was used to measure writing skills while the evaluation of the performance was based on the quantification of two linguistic dimensions: linguistic accuracy and syntactic complexity. The statistical analyses showed that there was no significant association between linguistic accuracy and syntactic complexity which seems to refute the existence of trade off. Moreover, it was observed that native speakers seem to use a more elaborate syntax in their texts, a result that was only partially true if one also takes into account the implications of other factors in the results obtained. The results are discussed based on the postulates of the Cognition Hypothesis and the Tradeoff Hypothesis.

Purpose: The results of automatic machine scoring of the Index of Productive Syntax from the Computerized Language ANalysis (CLAN) tools of the Child Language Data Exchange System of TalkBank (MacWhinney, 2000) were compared to manual scoring to determine the accuracy of the machine-scored method.Method: Twenty transcripts of 10 children from archival data of the Weismer Corpus from the Child Language Data Exchange System at 30 and 42 months were examined. Measures of absolute point difference and point-to-point accuracy were compared, as well as points erroneously given and missed. Two new measures for evaluating automatic scoring of the Index of Productive Syntax were introduced: Machine Item Accuracy (MIA) and Cascade Failure Rate— these measures further analyze points erroneously given and missed. Differences in total scores, subscale scores, and individual structures were also reported.Results: Mean absolute point difference between machine and hand scoring was 3.65, point-to-point agreement was 72.6%, and MIA was 74.9%. There were large differences in subscales, with Noun Phrase and Verb Phrase subscales generally providing greater accuracy and agreement than Question/Negation and Sentence Structures subscales. There were significantly more erroneous than missed items in machine scoring, attributed to problems of mistagging of elements, imprecise search patterns, and other errors. Cascade failure resulted in an average of 4.65 points lost per transcript.Conclusions: The CLAN program showed relatively inaccurate outcomes in comparison to manual scoring on both traditional and new measures of accuracy. Recommendations for improvement of the program include accounting for second exemplar violations and applying cascaded credit, among other suggestions. It was proposed that research on machine-scored syntax routinely report accuracy measures detailing erroneous and missed scores, including MIA, so that researchers and clinicians are aware of the limitations of a machine-scoring program.Supplemental Material S1. Sample Index of Productive Syntax (IPSyn) output.Supplemental Material S2. CLAN sample transcript. Supplemental Material S3. IPSyn manual scores (based on Scarborough, 1990).Roberts, J. A., Altenberg, E. P., & Hunter, M. (2020). Machine-scored syntax: Comparison of the CLAN automatic scoring program to manual scoring. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1044/2019_LSHSS-19-00056

The authors design the lexical rule file firstly. Lexical analyzer is generated by lexical analysis tool LEX automatically. Then we design the grammar rule and its corresponding semantic action source file of source codes to object codes conversion. The syntactic analyzer of codes conversion is generated by syntactic analysis tool YACC automatically. The corresponding tokens can be created through the lexical analyzer and then transferred to syntactic analyzer. The middle codes of syntactic analysis are an abstract syntax tree. We can traverse the abstract syntax tree top-down. According to the corresponding semantic rule, then the object codes are generated by comparing the difference between source codes and object codes. Finally a compiler of SystemC to VHDL codes automatic conversion is implemented using the method.

This article describes the irregularities of the ambiguous elements in the tatarucingan 'Sundanese riddle' on the syntactic level. The problems studied include the irregularities of the ambiguous elements, clue 'instructions' that appear in the answer, syntactic elements as a medium for the irregular ambiguity, and comparative structure in the tatarucingan. The research method used is descriptive method by using the analogy of Young Ho's riddle theory (2002) and the theory of syntax element by Djajasudarma (2013). Through the theory of the riddle’s structure generated the irregularities of the ambiguous elements in syntactic level in the form of manipulation syllabe words in the phrase and clue 'instructions' in the answer of the riddle grouped into two, namely; 1) clue 'instructions' to the question is repeated in the answer to the rendering of the tatarucingan 'Sundanese riddle'; 2) the clue 'instructions' in the question is a fragmentary element of the answer to the 'Sundanese riddle’. Through the theory of Djajasudarma (2013), the syntactic elements used in this text is a combination of words that make up the phrase. The phrases contained in the answer of the 'Sundanese riddle' are noun phrases, apositive phrases, verb phrases, prepositional phrases, numerical phrases and adjective phrases.

Grammatical research has tended for a long time to have two very different focuses: the structure of the grammatical system itself, and the grammatical structure of texts. Those interested in the system have seen little point in studying texts, as their main source of data has been native-speaker intuitions; and conversely, new ideas about how grammatical systems work have had little interest for text-students. This paper, by a theoretical syntactician, will review some recent work on texts which seems to raise interesting theoretical questions. 1. Word-class frequencies. The proportion of words that belong to any given word-class turns out to be much more constant across texts than one might expect. The theoretical question is 'Why?', but no answer is even on the horizon. Moreover, if we compare genres we find very small but constant variations in these proportions; and likewise if we compare languages. By a fortunate chance, one of the sources of data is the Greek New Testament, in which the word-class frequencies are astonishingly similar in some respects to those of modern English, though interestingly different in other respects. These data (and others) suggest a new approach to language typology, as well as to genre comparisons and even to sociolinguistics. 2. Word-order and dependencies. Suppose we make the controversial theoretical assumption that the foundation for sentence-structure is a surface dependency analysis (linking words in pairs, without intervening phrases). One practical consequence is that it becomes easy to analyse large texts syntactically (and to teach this skill to students), which in turn means that it becomes possible to ask some simple questions about the relative frequencies of various patterns in the dependency structures. How many words are more than 1 (or 2 or ...) words from the word on which they depend (their head)? How many words precede (or follow) their head? How many adjectives depend on a following noun? The answers to these questions may be relevant to theoretical questions ranging from questions about how children learn language to questions about relative markedness of constructions. 3. Syntactic complexity. One way to measure syntactic complexity is to count the number of 'incomplete' dependencies after each word, as each such dependency places an extra burden on short-term memory. It is easy to measure the syntactic complexity of a whole text in this way, and to compare different texts (even across languages). This measure may also explain why it is so hard to understand self-embedded sentences like The dog the cat the farmer bought chased barked.

To analyze and evaluate textbooks, researchers have either proposed scales and checklists to be filled by teachers and learners or conducted qualitative investigations of the match between SLA theories and textbook activities. This study, however, employs the microstructural approach of schema theory to scrutinize the reading passages of “Mosaic 1 Reading”. To this end, 17 passages of the textbook were randomly chosen and their constituting words were explored as semantic, syntactic, and parasyntactic schemata. The passages were also analyzed in terms of their readability indices. The results showed that they consist of 3722 schema types, 2979 (80%) of which are semantic in nature. Although the textbook aims at “academic success” at English language “proficiency levels”, it provides no objective definition of what they stand for. In terms of readability, however, the passages vary in difficulty from grade three in primary school to college level. Further, the textbook is discussed in terms of its constituting schemata and suitability to the Iranian context and suggestions are made for future research. The findings of this study have important implications for language teaching, testing and materials development. They show that language proficiency must be defined in terms of schema types and the bulk of class time must be spent on teaching semantic schemata rather than syntactic and parasyntactic ones. Similarly, for testing the reading comprehension of these passages, the number and type of test items must be based on the percentage of semantic and syntactic schema types and subjective criteria such as teachers’ intuition or experience must be avoided both in teaching and testing the comprehension of passages.

Proof assistants and the programming languages that implement them need to deal with a range of linguistic expressions that involve bindings. Since most mature proof assistants do not have built-in methods to treat this aspect of syntax, many of them have been extended with various packages and libraries that allow them to encode bindings using, for example, de Bruijn numerals and nominal logic features. I put forward the argument that bindings are such an intimate aspect of the structure of expressions that they should be accounted for directly in the underlying programming language support for proof assistants and not added later using packages and libraries. One possible approach to designing programming languages and proof assistants that directly supports such an approach to bindings in syntax is presented. The roots of such an approach can be found in the mobility of binders between term-level bindings, formula-level bindings (quantifiers), and proof-level bindings (eigenvariables). In particular, by combining Church's approach to terms and formulas (found in his Simple Theory of Types) and Gentzen's approach to sequent calculus proofs, we can learn how bindings can declaratively interact with the full range of logical connectives and quantifiers. I will also illustrate how that framework provides an intimate and semantically clean treatment of computation and reasoning with syntax containing bindings. Some implemented systems, which support this intimate and built-in treatment of bindings, will be briefly described.

This paper builds upon recent syntactic reconstruction literature both by suggesting that the featural composition of syntactic functional heads can be reconstructed without an accompanying reconstructible phonological form, and by showing that certain types of innovation can inform reconstruction, at least in the syntactic domain. Using this innovation-driven reconstruction, I propose that Proto-Indo-European (PIE) was disharmonically headed in CP and TP, based on innovated complementizer and auxiliary construction data from six of the earliest-attested Indo-European daughter languages.

Ambiguity occurs when a sentence has more than one meaning. Ambiguity can be caused by the ambiguous lexicon in which one word has more than one meaning and it can also be caused because of the way the sentence is structure (syntactic). The context also determines whether the sentence can be interpreted differently and become ambiguous. Ambiguity often causes confusion, and has become one of the phenomena in language studies, especially semantics. This study investigates ambiguity in creating humors. The data were taken from electronic sources in forms of newspaper headlines, jokes, riddles and anecdotes. The number of the data collection includes 25 cases of ambiguity. 12 sentences were lexically ambiguous, while the other 13 sentences were syntactically ambiguous. The results showed that lexical ambiguity and syntactic ambiguity were the language devices used to create puns in humor. The results also suggested that the ambiguity could be an effective source of humor when it particularly involves dual interpretations in which one interpretation gives a serious meaning and tone, whereas the other interpretation gives a humorous meaning which is not likely to occur in normal contexts. DOI: https://doi.org/10.24071/ijhs.2017.010113

Zombo sentences are described as consisting of one or more 'pitch phrases'. The arrangement of items in phrases is correlatable with their syntactic status. Syntactic units are characterized by phrase-initial or non-initial position. Pitches are interpreted in terms of a tonal system of high and low tones. Nominals examined in contexts of maximum differentiation show up to two tono-morphological variants, the occurrence of which is determined by the syntactic slot the nominal fills. Patterns of phrase-initial nominals occupying an entire phrase are described in terms of two initial realization rules, or modifications, each applying to a specific variant. Under modification, the high tones of the basic structure may not be fully realized. Patterns of phrase-initial nominal groups are further described in terms of three initial sequences : concatenate, composite and compound, regarded as exponents of syntactic relationship between components of the sequence. Compound sequences form a special syntactic category requiring phrase-initial exponence, which may over-ride the phrasing otherwise characteristic of the unit. These techniques are sufficient for the description of particles, verbals and mixed category sequences also; compounds, however, always have a nominal head. The terra 'syntactic tone-phrasing' is given to the system as a whole, Despite superficial resemblances to intonational languages, Zombo is best described as tonal. The main contributions of the thesis are regarded as i) the isolation of phrasing ii) the description of all items in terms of a maximum of two basic tonal variants, rather than a larger number based on tonetic description only iii) the demonstration of the part played by syntax in the tonal system.

Omission rate of the "de": a study on the reading unit