شناخت صرفههای اقتصادی جلب مشارکتهای مردمی در توسعه شبکههای آبیاری و زهکشی

It is crucial for environmental planning, land management, and sustainable development to be aware of the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of land changes. The use of vegetation maps is one of the important pillars of generating information for macro and micro planning. The present study employed the time and place of vegetation in Fars province. The data were derived from Landsat satellite data of OLI and ETM sensors for a 30-year period from 1986 to 2017, and the NDVI index was calculated. Moreover, quantitative values were classified for qualitative changes in vegetation. The index was classified into three groups: rich, poor, and vegetation-free. Temperature changes at the ground level were calculated using MODIS imagery for the studied period. The results revealed that quantitative and qualitative changes of vegetation over the studied 30 years was significant so that the vegetation-free areas were increased by 107.49, the areas with poor vegetation were decreased by 366.56 hectares, and the rich vegetation cover was decreased by 455.55 ha. The largest reduction in the area was related to the lands with rich vegetation. Investigating the surface temperature of the province with MODIS imagery demonstrated the rise in the surface temperature. The temperature difference was more than 3° (from -2.8°C to 0.96°C), and the highest temperature drop was observed in the eastern and central areas of the province. Finally, to investigate the relationship between vegetation and LST, the annual contamination lines were plotted along with the difference in NDVI over the studied period. The results revealed that in most areas with lower temperatures, the vegetation cover was denser. The statistical analysis between drought and vegetation indicated a significant relationship between these two factors.

This Technical Note 'Case Study ¿ Italy' is part of a series of case studies within the ¿Sustainable Agriculture and Soil Conservation¿ (SoCo) project. Ten case studies were carried out in Belgium, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom between spring and summer 2008. The selection of case study areas was designed to capture differences in soil degradation processes, soil types, climatic conditions, farm structures and farming practices, institutional settings and policy priorities. A harmonised methodological approach was pursued in order to gather insights from a range of contrasting conditions over a geographically diverse area. The case studies were carried out by local experts to reflect the specificities of the selected case studies.

Remnants of the Variscan mountain belt can be found today throughout North America, North Africa, Europe, and Asia, which are typically characterized by hilly to mountainous topography. Since the topography of the Variscan orogen was already levelled in the Permian by post-orogenic erosion and thermal subsidence, processes independent of Variscan convergent tectonics must be responsible for the observed high topography. Central Europe encompasses several landscapes showing extensive post Variscan relief rejuvenation, including from west to east the Massif Central, the Vosges Mountains and Black Forest, and the Bohemian Massif. However, despite their spatial proximity, the underlying processes that led to uplift and relief rejuvenation could not be more different. For the Massif Central, mantle plume activity has been proposed, while continental rifting has been held responsible for uplift of the Black Forest and Vosges Mountains. Uplift of the Bohemian Massif has been attributed to the forebulge of the Alpine orogeny, or slab dynamics in the eastern Alps, respectively.The aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between different uplift scenarios, relief formation and the response of the drainage system to spatial and temporal variations in uplift rates, focusing on the Massif Central, Black Forest and Vosges as well as the Bohemian Massif. The spatial and temporal succession of uplift rates as well as denudation rates in response to post orogenic uplift will be analysed based on an extensive compilation of low-temperature thermochronological data. Geomorphological analyses include the plan view and profile geometry of river networks, i.e., normalised steepness indices, across divide χ gradients and river orientation.Although the underlying processes are different, relief rejuvenation is a striking feature in these mountain ranges. Low relief surfaces at higher elevations contrast with lower reaches, with deeply incised rivers and migrating knickpoints indicating temporal variations in uplift rates over the last millions of years. Furthermore, the organisation of river networks varies within the mountain ranges, highlighting the influence of underlying processes on the evolution of drainage networks. The Massif Central shows a radial, star-shaped drainage pattern with rivers steepening towards the centre of the plume related uplift. The Upper Rhine Graben is dominated by rift flank retreat governing drainage divide migration. This is expressed by short, steep rivers draining into the graben and long, low gradient rivers on the side facing away from the rift valley. The Bohemian Massif features a bowl-shaped topography, with tributaries of the Moldau (Vltava) draining north. However, the southern side of the Bohemian Massif drains into the Danube in short tributaries with steep lower reaches. These analyses in combination with thermochronometry pave towards constraining timing and spatial extent of the rejuvenation signal. Ultimately, this will allow for making inferences on the underlying driving mechanisms.

One approach for reducing CO2 and increasing global carbon storage is the sequestration of it in soils. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate carbon sequestration with different land uses and its economic aspect in the Award watershed in the Mazandaran province. First of all, in the study area, the boundary of the watershed was delineated and controlled by a field survey using GPS. After the boundary of the study area was demarcated, the soil samples were selected randomly, taken from a depth of 0-30 cm for each land use (i.e., protected forest, open forest, rangelands, walnut gardens, mixed walnut–apple gardens, cereal croplands and frijol farmland). In total, around 21 soil samples were taken from the study area. The selected parameters for analysis are the amount of carbon sequestration and certain soil properties (bulk density and organic carbon). The statistical analysis was performed by the SPSS.16.0 software. After the assessment of the homogeneity of variance, in order to test the null hypothesis of the equal averages of the parameters for the seven land uses, analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed by the Duncan test at a significance level of 5%. The results demonstrate that the different land uses have different effects on the amount of carbon sequestration. The protected forests and cereal croplands have the highest and lowest carbon sequestration values, respectively. The overall amount of carbon sequestration in this watershed has been estimated to be around 743,460 ton/ha.

La contaminazione dei sedimenti di fondo, che interessa molti porti e corpi idrici in cui si svolgono attività commerciali e produttive, è un problema emerso da qualche decennio ed oggetto di crescente attenzione. Nei porti e canali navigabili, sottoposti ad attività di dragaggio per garantire il mantenimento delle profondità prescritte per la navigazione, il livello di contaminazione si ripercuote direttamente sugli oneri di gestione del dragaggio, che risultano notevolmente accresciuti al superamento delle soglie di contaminazione prescritte. Ad oggi, molte delle tecniche di trattamento di matrici contaminate da metalli pesanti risultano troppo onerose per l'applicazione ai sedimenti di dragaggio, in particolare per quelli a struttura limo-argillosa, che sono caratterizzati da bassa permeabilità ed elevato potere tampone. Il trattamento elettrocinetico presenta in queste circostanze il campo ideale di azione, mostrando ottime potenzialità anche per il trattamento dei sedimenti di dragaggio. Tuttavia, nonostante i numerosi test di laboratorio citati in letteratura, le applicazioni in piena scala sono ancora limitatissime, essendo ben consolidata la sola applicazione al trattamento di terreni. Il progetto LIFE+ SEKRET ("Sediment ElectroKinetic REmediation Technology for heavy metal pollution removal") ha come obiettivo di dimostrare l'applicabilità di tale tecnica al trattamento di sedimenti marini di dragaggio contaminati da metalli pesanti, attraverso la realizzazione di un impianto dimostrativo in un'area dedicata nel porto di Livorno, che tratterà 150 m3 di sedimenti di dragaggio. In tale realtà vengono infatti regolarmente dragati circa 100.000 m3/anno di sedimenti, in parte contaminati da Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb e Zn poco oltre i valori soglia di contaminazione. Il progetto si pone l'obiettivo di evidenziare i vantaggi ambientali ed economici di questa soluzione rispetto ad altre tecniche di trattamento o al trasferimento in discarica del materiale contaminato.

پهنه بندی و تعیین منشأ آلودگی منیزیم و فلزات سنگین آهن، روی و مس در آبخوانهای شمال و شمال غرب خوی (زورآباد) با استفاده از GIS

It is very important to recognize the areas with high potential risk of landslide in order to resist that. In a case study, thirty three landslides have been observed in Safarood watershed. The purpose of this study is to recognize factors and zonation of potential areas for landslide. This paper covers specific factors including lithology, fault, height, slope, direction, rainfall, soil, vegetation and villages of the area. GIS is used to prepare and integrate thematic layers, combine them by weight model and finally to prepare a map of landslide hazard. AHP statistic method is used for weighting the criteria. The criterion for weighting the existing elements in each layer has been based on the most important role played in the layer and in landslide. After combining various layers in GIS medium, the map of landslide hazard zonation is obtained in four zonation with every high hazard, high hazard, medium and low hazard. It has been determined that approximately 31% of the surface of the area is encountered very high and high hazard landslides. 94% of the cases observed in landslide, based on the mentioned zonation and the model, are in the zonation of very high and high hazards that show the high accuracy of this method. Keywords: Landslide, zonation, Safaroud watershed, AHP,GIS.

Introduction: Saffron is one of the most important economic plants in the Khorasan province. Awareness of soil quality in agricultural lands is essential for the best management of lands and for obtaining maximum economic benefit. In general, plant growth is a function of environmental factors especially chemical and physical properties of soil (20). It has been demonstrated that there was a positive and high correlation between soil organic matter and saffron yield. Increasing the yield of saffron due to organic matter is probably due to soil nutrient, especially phosphorous and nitrogen and also improvement of soil physical quality (6, 28, 29). The yield of saffron in soils with high nitrogen as a result of vegetative growth is high (8). Shahandeh (6) found that most of the variation of saffron yield depends on soil properties. Due to the economic importance of saffron and the role of soil properties on saffron yield, this research was conducted to find the relationship between saffron yield and some soil physical and chemical properties, and to determine the contribution of soil properties that have the greatest impact on saffron yield in the Ghayenat area. Materials and Methods: This research was performed in 30 saffron fields (30 soil samples) of the Ghayenat area (longitude 59° 10΄ 10.37˝ - 59° 11΄ 38.41˝ and latitude 33° 43΄ 35.08˝ - 33΄ 44΄ 02.78˝), which is located in the Khrasan province of Iran. In this research, 21 soil properties were regarded as the total data set (TDS). Then the principal component analysis (PCA) was used to determine the most important soil properties affecting saffron yield as a minimum data set (MDS) and the stepwise regression to estimate saffron yield. To estimate the yield of saffron in stepwise regression method, saffron yield was considered as a dependent variable and soil physical and chemical properties were considered to be independent variables. Results and Discussion: According to the PCA method, among the 21 studied properties, 7 out of them including calcium, iron, zinc contents, sand, calcium carbonate equivalent percent, mean weight diameter of aggregates (MWD) and manganese (Mn) had the higher Eigenvalues. Therefore, the above properties were introduced as the most important soil properties in saffron fields. Calcium carbonate had the negative effect on the availability of micro-nutrients (26). Christensen et al. (15) found that by increasing the calcium carbonate in soil due to high pH and formation of insoluble components, the uptake of micro-nutrients is especially limited. The results of stepwise regression method (equation 1) showed that soil acidity (pH), zinc content, bulk density, MWD, iron content, salinity (EC), organic carbon and available potassium in soil were the most important properties that affect the yield of saffron, so that the determination coefficient (R2) of the regression model was high (Table 2) and it can explain 74% of the variation of saffron yield. Y = 6924.51 – 1187.31 pH – 89.65 EC + 71.6 Fe – 826.02 Zn + 471.55 OC, + 5490.96 K + 1353.56 BD + 752.82 MWD (1) where Y: saffron yield (kgha-1), pH: soil acidity, EC: electoral conductivity (dSm-1), Fe: iron concentration (mgkg-1), Zn: zinc concentration (mgkg-1), OC: organic carbon (%), K: soil potassium (%), BD: soil bulk density (Mgm-3), and MWD: mean weight diameter of aggregates (MM). Based on the absolute values of standard s in the regression model (Table 3), pH value and then after Zn concentration had the most effect on saffron yield. In general, responses of different plants to soil pH is varied, and saffron grows satisfactory in pH = 7.8 (5). Soil pH influences the uptake of soil nutrients by plants (15), so that this parameter had the most effect on saffron yield and by increasing the soil pH, the yield of saffron decreases. According to the regression model, Zn concentration was the second parameter in saffron yield. Zn has the important role in structure of plant enzymes (30). After these 2 parameters, Bd, MWD, Fe concentration, EC, Organic carbon and K concentration in soil had more effect on saffron yield (Table 3). Conclusion: According to both PCA and regression methods, the concentration of iron and zinc and MWD were determined as the important and effective soil properties on saffron yield in the Ghayenat area. In addition, soil pH in stepwise regression method and calcium carbonate in PCA method were determined as the effective properties on saffron yield. Therefore, it is suggested that the parameters of Zn, Fe, and MWD along with soil pH and calcium carbonate which were regarded individually in two methods, were considered as the most soil properties in saffron yield.

The rehabilitation of sandy desertified land in various dryland ecosystems by different management practices has a great potential to increase aggregate stability and improve soil quality. However, plants in general may have a different ability to sustain soil. The objective was to determine the effects of reclamation practices including Haloxylon ammodendron and Atriplex canescens plantation on some soil properties, soil erodibility and the relationships among soil properties and erodibility index in desertified land of Jupar in Kerman province, southern Iran. According to the research objectives, 24 soil samples from 0-20 cm depth were taken from each area, i.e. reclamation sites and control area (untreated land) by systematic – random method. Soil properties such as soil texture, structure, pH, EC, CaCO3, gypsum, bulk density, organic carbon and soil organic matter were measured. The mean weight diameter (MWD) and geometric mean diameter (GMD) were used as soil erodibility indices. The results of our study showed that MWD had positive correlation with organic carbon, CaCO3 and soil acidity values. Furthermore, according to the effect of Haloxylon on aggregate stability and its positive role in modifying soil physical and chemical properties, and also the height of this species, which can contribute in wind erosion control in this area, therefore, it is concluded that Haloxylon ammodendron had better performance in desert rehabilitation project and to stabilize sandy land in Jupar area than Atriplex canescens.

The feasibility of utilizing cellulosic biomass as an energy feedstock is domi- nated by factors such as facility location, feedstock availability, and transportation cost. Our previous case study showed improvements in quantification of feedstock availability for a biorefinery by introducing the effect of field-level yield variance and variable resi- due removal rates as improvement parameters into the GIS-based analysis. Even though the improved GIS-based method enhanced quantification of feedstock availability with the addition of the improvement parameters, a biorefinery would most likely procure more than one feedstock type. In this case study, quantification of feedstock availability based on multi-crop rotation cropping systems was done using the previously improved GIS-based variable residue removal (VRR) method. We observed on average a 3,793 ±5,733 DT per service area difference when increasing the number of crops used to esti- mate feedstock quantification. The supplementary use of crop-specific VRR rates affected residue availability, given that a crop's residue removal rate is influenced by crop yield, crop rotation, soil characteristics, as well as field location and management. It was also observed that the amount of available hectares of the three main crops analyzed in this case study affected residue availability. Corn represented 26.2% (440,636 ha; 1,101,591 acres), sorghum represented 12.9% (217,432 ha; 543,579 acres), and wheat represented 60.9% (1,024,607 ha; 2,561,518 acres) of the hectares in the study area. The validation study showed the importance of taking into account the seasonal availability of crop residue when estimating procurement service areas, given that in some cases feed- stock requirements were not met.

...¶ This thesis describes a range of laboratory and field investigations on the effects of salinity and sodicity on SOC dynamics.¶ In this research, the effects of a range of salinity and sodicity levels on C dynamics were determined by subjecting a vegetated soil from Bevendale, New South Wales (NSW) to one of six treatments. A low, mid or high salinity solution (EC 0.5, 10 or 30 dS/m) combined with a low or high sodicity solution (SAR 1 or 30) in a factorial design was leached through a non-degraded soil in a controlled environment. Soil respiration and the SMB were measured over a 12-week experimental period. The greatest increases in SMB occurred in treatments of high-salinity high-sodicity, and high-salinity low-sodicity. This was attributed to solubilisation of SOM which provided additional substrate for decomposition for the microbial population. Thus, as salinity and sodicity increase in the field, soil C is likely to be rapidly lost as a result of increased mineralisation.¶...

Livestock operations in Alberta have a significant impact on the economy. Manure is a by-product of livestock production. The review of the science on manure examined the environmental impacts of manure. These impacts include water pollution, air pollution, climatic change, and soil degradation. There are several technologies that may be used to manage manure on-farm and off-farm. These include nutrient recycling through soil application and composting. Composting reduces the volume of manure, but increases the nitrogen losses from the manure This review, using a very simplistic approach, estimated that more than 6.3 million tonnes of manure were generated in Alberta in 1996. Other studies have estimated significantly higher annual manure production. On a province-wide basis, there is adequate cropland area to make use of all the nutrients available in the manure produced. However, manure production tends to be concentrated on smaller land areas. Benefits of manure are constrained by both hauling costs and the costs of managing the manure itself. The on-farm economic costs or benefits are not well documented. Four general approaches have been used to analyze the on-farm economics of manure management. - Opportunity Cost: Value the nutrient content of manure using commercial fertilizer values and consider the manure or manure product as a commercial fertilizer substitute or supplement. - Crop Benefit: Value the direct crop benefit through a comparison of production in soil with manure applied versus a control with no manure applied. - Cost of Business: View the manure exclusively as a by-product of livestock production and evaluate methods for minimizing the cost of disposal. - Business Enterprise: View manure production as a value-added business and evaluate as a separate business enterprise using an appropriate approach. Any detailed economic analysis should incorporate the dynamic nature of manure production, and the management of manure through recycling through soil. Only one study was identified that was based on Alberta conditions and utilized a systems approach. At best, only one of the published studies explicitly incorporated the dynamic interactions of the livestock operation with a cropping enterprise, to analyze the on-farm economics of manure. This may be, in part, related to the complexities of modeling the key components in the system, while including the dynamic time-related interactions between soil, manure, and the environment. Those studies that attempted a systems approach or, at the very least, a more complete investment analysis, generally showed manure to be a net cost to the farm business. Little farm gate economic research applicable to Alberta on cost and benefits of manure systems for commercial farms for feedlots, dairy, pork or poultry was found. Future research could focus on a) economic case studies of selected farms to value manure management systems and b) working towards a systems analysis of manure management for Alberta livestock farms.

Characteristics and problems of marginal soils from acid sedimentary rocks in Kalimantan Marginal or suboptimal soils are potential for agricultural development such as food crops, estate crops, and industrial planted forest. These soils have low fertility status and susceptible to erosion. In Kalimantan, the marginal soils cover about 30.15 million ha or 57.22% of the total island area, with the major soils consist of Ultisols, few Oxisols, and Inceptisols. The physical properties of marginal soils from acid sedimentary rock are mostly influenced by the type of parent materials ( sandstone or claystone ) , while the chemical properties showed the similar characteristics indicating acid soil reaction, vary in organic matter, and low in cation exchange capacity, exchangeable bases, base saturation, mineral reserve, as well as P and K potentials, but the Al saturation is high. Agricultural development on these soils, other than the physical and chemical properties, should consider the relief condition. The areas with flat to undulating relief are recommended for perennial or food crops, while the annual or estate crops and industrial planted forest can be developed until the hilly area. Land management such as fertilization to improve nutrient status, liming to increase soil reaction and to decrease Al reactivity, and soil conservation practice were recommended. In this time, most of the marginal soils were utilized for estate crops development, such as oil palm, rubber, pepper, and industrial planted forest, and only a limited area for food crops. Keywords: Marginal soil, acid sedimentary rock, Ultisols, Oxisols, Inceptisols, Kalimantan

Gendol River flows from the south slope of Merapi Volcano meets Opak River to form a wider river, namely Opak River. In the upper stream of Opak and Gendol Rivers area, volcanic material accumulated from the 2010 Merapi Volcano eruption that ready to flow downstream through both rivers. The total amount of volcanic material in the Merapi’s peak area is predicted as much as 140 million cubic meters, part of it is distributed in the upper stream of both rivers. In the downstream area, the Opak River flows nearby the great Prambanan Temple and across the main road of Yogyakarta-Surakarta capital cities.To know the laharic flow disaster potential of both rivers, collecting of primary data along the river flows is needed in order to understand the characteristic and mechanism of laharic flows. DEM analysis combined with ArcGIS 9.3 tools are applied to know the additional volume of volcanic material after 2010 Merapi Volcano eruption. The triggering factor of laharic flows in the study area including the runoff, soil water saturation rate, rainfall and soil water saturation time are mathematically calculated based on data analysis on soil mechanics.Based on the calculation of thickness and distribution in the Merapi Peak area, the mass volcanic material that is ready to be transported as the laharic flows through Gendol and Opak Rivers is around 14,745,496 m3. The volcanic material can transform into laharic flows by initial runoff if the soil water saturation column reach at least 5.96 m. With the rainfall average in the southern part of Merapi Volcano is 17.32 mm/day, that saturation value can be reached by 21.8 hours in the upper stream area and 17.67 hours in the lower part area. If the laharic flows occurred, the damage would happen in villages along the rivers, Prambanan Temple, and Opak River’s Bridge connecting Yogyakarta-Surakarta main road.

This paper reports the results of a case study of liquefaction assessment and mapping carried out in the harbour area of Gioia Tauro, in the southern part of Italy. The area, lying on a flat plain prevalently constituted in the first 20 meters below the ground level by cohesionless loose soils, struck by several historical earthquakes with intensity superior to VIII MCS, was the object of extensive seismological, geological and geotechnical surveys. The cyclic resistance ratio and the liquefaction potential index were estimated from numerous but not equispatially distributed in the area CPT and SPT profiles. Therefore geo-statistical method were applied to draw up reliable liquefaction hazard maps including uncertainties of estimated risk.