중국어 신어(新語)의 조어(造語) 형태에 대한 고찰 : 『現代漢語詞典(第7版)』의 신어를 중심으로

Vowel undershoot (Lindblom, 1963), an effect where the articulatory gesture fails to reach the target due to the following contrary gesture (de Jong, 2004), is found to be particularly prominent (lowered F1 and shortened duration) in polysyllables (Lindblom, 1968; Moon and Lindblom, 1989). The current study investigates Mandarin and American speakers' production of English tense-lax vowels /i/-/I/ and /eI/-/ε/, and examines undershoot in monosyllabic and disyllabic words. Three Mandarin and three American speakers were recorded. Fifteen target vowels were embedded in a voiced stop-V-voiceless stop context. All disyllabic words were first-syllable stressed. Carrier sentences were of variable length to create a natural-speech-like context. F1, F2, vowel duration and utterance duration were measured. The results show that Americans did show a significant distinction between /i/-/I/ but tended to merge the formants of /eI/-/ε/ in disyllabic words, which was partly due to the coarticulation with the following syllable. They also demonstrated undershoot effect in /eI/-/ε/ but not much in /i/-/I /. Mandarin speakers, however, could not make a significant tense-lax distinction, and showed formant undershoot in disyllabic words, especially tense vowels. One possible account for this effect is the influence from L1. The issue of Mandarin vowel inventory is discussed.

Hayes (1995) mentions a “minimal word syndrome,” according to which, in certain languages, words cannot be smaller than a size defined by the prosodic configuration of such languages. In the literature, the minimal word is usually associated with the requirement that a word have at least two moras, and this requirement can be minimally satisfied by a disyllabic word only, in languages ​​that are insensitive to weight, or also by a monosyllabic word with a long vowel (in languages ​​in which such a vowel has a distinctive character) or with a coda, in languages ​​that show sensitivity to syllabic weight. For McCarthy and Prince (1995), the minimal word is the result of the prosodic hierarchy and the foot binarity condition. In Portuguese, unlike what occurs in other languages, such as English, there is discussion about the action of the minimal word requirement. In the literature, it is possible to find arguments for and against its relevance to the prosodic configuration of Portuguese. It is in this scenario that the present work seeks to contribute to this discussion based on the analysis of arguments for and against a minimum bimoraicity imposed on words in Brazilian Portuguese. Bisol (2000) and Vigário (2003), for Brazilian and European Portuguese, respectively, argue that the bimoraic minimal word has no role, since there are monosyllabic words without a coda. Booij (2004), in turn, emphasizes that these words are rare, so that this argument is not valid for the author. Still regarding the arguments of Bisol (2000) and Vigário (2003), according to the authors, there are no phonological processes that are applied for a bimoraic word to emerge and, also, there are no phonological processes that are not applied for a non-bimoraic word to emerge. The literature on Brazilian Portuguese, however, shows that hypocorization can be understood as a phenomenon from which bimoraic words become superficial (Gonçalves, 2004a, among others), and the analysis of variable phenomena reveals that some of them have their application restrained if it results in a monomoraic word. It is worth mentioning that, even among authors who defend the imposition of a minimum length for words in Portuguese, there is no consensus as to how this length is configured, with proposals that take into account structures such as the syllable, the foot or even the number of segments. Thus, there is a need for studies that are methodologically oriented towards a search for evidence against or in favor of the application of the minimal word in Portuguese.

Polysyllabic words (PSWs), that is, words of three or more syllables, make up a significant proportion of young children's lexicons. Vihman (1996) reported a range from 2% to 27% in children aged 1;0 to 2;0 years from different linguistic backgrounds. Calculations based on Klein's (1981) study indicated an average of 24% of PSWs (predominantly monomorphemic) in the lexicons of five children speaking American English in an age range of 20 to 24 months. However, few tests of speech in citation form include this proportion of PSWs. For example, the proportion of PSWs in The Fisher-Logemann Test of Articulation Competence (Fisher & Logemann, 1971) is 4.5% (5 PSWs). The proportion within The Goldman-Fristoe Test of Articulation (Goldman & Fristoe, 1969) is 9% (4 PSWs). The proportion within the Smit-Hand Articulation and Phonology Evaluation (Smit & Hand, 1997) is 3.8% (3 PSWs). The proportion in the Articulation Survey (Atkin & Fisher, 1996) is 7.6% (5 PSWs). Even the word corpus developed by Grunwell (1987) to account for medial sounds occurring in either syllable-initial or syllable-final position only contains 7% PSWs (14 PSWs). Furthermore, most of the normative data about speech in citation form have been developed from word corpora dominated by monosyllabic words (MSWs) and disyllabic words (DSWs) not PSWs (Ingram, 1976). For example, the American normative data about consonants developed by Smit, Hand, Freilinger, Bernthal and Bird (1990) were developed from a protocol of 81 words, three of which were PSWs. Australian data developed by Kilminster and Laird (1978) and Chirlian and Sharpley (1982) were based on a protocol of 59 words, four of which were PSWs. The normative data developed by Arlt and Goodban (1976) were developed from a protocol of 48 words, one of which was a PSW. The normative data for the Edinburgh Articulation Test (Anthony, Bogle, Ingram & McIsaac, 1971) were developed from 41 words, four of whichwere PSWs. If the inclusion of significant numbers of PSWs in the normative data results in different, possibly lower norms, then children's speech skills may be overestimated when using tests containing few PSWs.

Objective: The primary objective of this study was to compare the applicability and benefit of providing unilateral cochlear implant (CI) users with a contralateral hearing aid (HA). Design: This retrospective (case-control) study was conducted in a hospital-based CI centre. Participants self-assessed their hearing via two questionnaires (SSQ12 and HISQUI19). Objective postoperative speech perception was assessed via aided thresholds and speech perception tests (monosyllabic words, disyllabic words, and sentences) in quiet and noise. Study sample: A CI-only group (n = 113, mean age 55.1 ± 14.2 years) and a bimodal group (n = 50, mean age 56.7 ± 15.2) participated in the study. Results: No significant difference in SSQ12 or HISQUI19 scores was observed between groups. The bimodal group had a significantly better aided hearing level (p = 0.020) and speech discrimination score (p = 0.019). Conclusions: Bimodal (CI + HA) users have significantly better speech understanding than unilateral CI-only users, although this benefit may not be reflected in self-assessed outcomes. Counselling about bimodal hearing must cover expectations about potential benefits.

Spondees, both true disyllabic words and concatenated monosyllabic word pairs, had their middle section replaced by silence that extended from the midpoint of the first to the midpoint of the second vowel; the silence thus included the final consonant(s) of the first and the initial consonant(s) of the second syllable. These stimuli were presented to normal-hearing young listeners instructed to guess both monosyllabic half words. Input and response spondees were orthographically aligned and analyzed as confusion matrices. Articulatory gestures were estimated for each token via the Haskins Laboratories TADA articulatory synthesis. After time alignment, articulatory distances were calculated for each stimulus-response pair. In the blanked middle of the spondee, phoneme-based confusions of place-of-articulation were high (39% accuracy), while gestural distances underlying this feature (location and degree of tongue tip constriction, lip aperture, and velar constriction) were under 10%. These results suggest that acoustic traces of a significant portion of gesture trajectories underlying consonantal place-of-articulation that start before and/or terminate after the silence, are perceived by the listener. An articulatory phonology might thus be more robust to degradation. [Work supported by NSF, AFOSR, and the VA Medical Research.]

Native tone language speakers were presented with speech materials in their language produced by non-native speakers. The speech materials are streams selected according to their acoustic characteristics. They were made out of monosyllabic words, disyllabic words and polysyllabic short sentences in spoken Mandarin. Participants were required to recognize the speeches in as short time as possible. Results revealed that the minimal time needed to identify the speech is longer for monosyllabic sequences, suggesting that ambiguities reside mostly in the lexical tone level. The ambiguity due to tone perception decreases when the segmented speech events increase. Although it contributes to word meaning, pitch perception is less important in a polysyllables group of words or sentence processing than in monosyllabic word identification. We will also present some applications of these findings.

The present study investigates the reasons for better recognition of disyllabic words in Malayalam among individuals with hearing loss. This research was conducted in three experiments. Experiment 1 measured the psychometric properties (slope, intercept, and maximum scores) of disyllabic wordlists. Experiment 2 examined PBmax scores across varying degrees of sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL) and compared these findings with studies in other Indian and global languages. Experiment 3 analyzed the recognition performance of different vowel combinations across varying degrees of hearing loss. Experiment 1: Psychometric functions for disyllabic word recognition were derived from 45 individuals with normal hearing. Word recognition was tested in quiet at nine hearing levels ranging from -10 to +40 dB HL. Experiment 2: 1000 participants with SNHL were categorized by hearing loss severity (mild, moderate, moderately severe, severe, and profound). Word recognition scores, including PBmax, were analyzed and compared across severity levels. Experiment 3: Percent error scores for 17 vowel combinations were assessed in 37 participants with SNHL. Ten disyllabic words represented each combination. Disyllabic wordlists showed significantly higher word recognition scores than monosyllabic lists across all degrees of hearing loss. Individuals with mild-to-moderately severe SNHL achieved higher PBmax scores, with performance declining at severe- and profound-loss levels. The higher recognition of disyllabic words was attributed to contextual cues and low-frequency vowel-based information, particularly benefiting those with residual low-frequency hearing. Error analysis highlighted the influence of specific vowel combinations on word recognition performance. Disyllabic words are easier to recognize than monosyllabic words for individuals with SNHL due to their rich contextual and low-frequency energy cues. Disyllabic wordlists sustain higher recognition scores up to moderately severe hearing loss but show a marked decline with more severe losses. The phonemic balance of wordlists and vowel combinations significantly influences word recognition, emphasizing the importance of these factors in developing wordlists for clinical use.

A range of early Chinese texts features the term louyi 螻蟻, which modern scholars and translators often interpret as signifying mole crickets and ants. This essentially means that they understand the two characters as standing for two different words, each denoting a different animal. However, a closer look at the examples in early Chinese texts shows that this was probably a disyllabic word referring to a single insect, namely, ants, with no involvement of mole crickets. Understanding what the term actually meant is important because it demonstrates how we, basing ourselves on pre-modern commentarial and lexicographic traditions, often unnecessarily separate compound words into their constituents. Although few specialists of pre-modern China today would subscribe to the much-criticized one-character-one-word model, translations still often treat the two components of disyllabic words as separate entities, even when the context makes it clear that they probably stand for a single word. More interestingly, this phenomenon sheds light on the development of the core vocabulary of sinology, revealing its cumulative and often highly conservative trajectory.

This paper investigates the underlying aspects which would account for why some Arabic geographical names accept the addition of the definite "?al" to their beginnings and why some don’t accept such an addition. The study depends on the data taken from “"Atlas of Jordan and World, 2003"”. This research is only oriented to the monosyllabic and disyllabic words. The researchers cited some pieces of evidence validating that this addition is mainly correlated with two aspects: the place of articulation of each segment comprising the whole word and the semantic content of the whole word. The study concludes that whether accepting the definite article or not is not haphazard, but, to the contrary, it is quite subjected to specific semantic procedures and certain segmental paradigms.

Computer-assisted perceptual training is effective in learning Mandarin tones both in monosyllabic and disyllabic words, but disyllabic tone training is nearly twice as effective as monosyllabic tone training (Li et al., A sound approach to language matters in honor of Ocke-Schwen Bohn. Aarhus University Library/Royal Danish Library—AU Library Scholarly Publishing Service, pp. 303–319, 2019). The present study analyzed the tone identification performance of Mandarin learners on both monosyllabic and disyllabic stimuli to provide explicit, meaningful information for teaching and learning tones. The results showed that all learners identified T4 significantly better than T1, T2, and T3 in the monosyllabic stimuli. In the disyllabic stimuli, T3 in the first syllable position was the most difficult to perceive, followed by T2, T1, and T4; in the second syllable position, T2 was the most problematic, followed by T1, T3, and T4. In addition, tone errors in both types of stimuli were analyzed to find the easier and the more difficult tone pairs after training. Finally, the learners were found to be generally proficient at perceiving tones in the final but not initial syllable, in compatible but not in conflicting tonal context, and in same tonal sequence but not in different tonal sequence. These findings provide evidence for successful tone learning through the increased utilization of disyllabic stimuli in Chinese language teaching.KeywordsComputer-assisted learningPerceptual trainingMandarin ChineseTone learning

This paper presents an acoustic study of alveolar flaps in American English as produced by 20 speakers of a North Midland dialect spoken in the Kansas area. Participants read three lists of 164 monosyllabic and disyllabic words and nonwords containing word‐final and medial /t/ and /d/. Vowel duration differences in monosyllabic and disyllabic tokens and consonant duration differences in monosyllabic tokens duplicated previous findings in that vowels preceding /d/ were significantly longer than those preceding /t/ and in that the average duration of /t/ was significantly longer than that of /d/. However, flap duration measured significantly longer for /d/‐flaps than /t/‐flaps. When analyzing flap frequency, it was also discovered that females flapped significantly more often than males and that participants were more likely to flap when they were less aware of the contrast between /t/ and /d/. While previous research reported that monomorphemic and high‐frequency words are more likely to be flapped than bimorphemic and low‐frequency words, neither word frequency nor morphological complexity affected flap frequency in the present study. Flap frequency was based on a method of distinguishing flapped from unflapped stops on a speaker‐by‐speaker basis, a more accurate method than that used in previous studies.

This paper is framed within an interdisciplinary approach that connects traditional patterns of oral and written literature with contemporary digital technologies in the educational process. Starting from the structural and semantic constants of the fairy tale – archetypal motifs of crisis, transformation, and linguistic empowerment – the study explores the potential of fairy tales as pedagogical and therapeutic tools to stimulate verbal production in preschool children and enhance reading competencies in early school-age children. Particular emphasis is placed on the analysis of the digital mobile speech therapy set, Mobilic, which innovatively integrates elements of speech support by promoting correct phoneme articulation, auditory and verbal attention, as well as reading and storytelling based on provided concepts through illustrations, monosyllabic and disyllabic words, interactive story elements, and audiovisual stimulation. The aim of the study is to analyze how the fairy tale, as part of linguistic heritage and an influential tool for children's imagination, can be integrated into speech therapy activities supported by digital tools. The paper presents the structure and functionality of the Mobilic digital speech therapy set, illustrating its application with children through activities targeting phoneme analysis, articulation, comprehension, and expression, aligned with the structure of the selected fairy tale. Beyond presenting these activities, the study also considers the potential for further use of such multimodal tools in speech therapy, focusing on their accessibility, flexibility, and motivational impact on children. This work contributes to bridging traditional narrative forms with modern technologies to foster speech and language development in preschool and early school-age children.

Purpose To propose an instrument for assessing speech recognition in the presence of competing noise. To define its application strategy for use in clinical practice. To obtain evidence of criterion validity and present reference values. Methods The study was conducted in three stages: Organization of the material comprising the Word-with-Noise Test (Stage 1); Definition of the instrument's application strategy (Stage 2); Investigation of criterion validity and definition of reference values for the test (Stage 3) through the evaluation of 50 normal-hearing adult subjects and 12 subjects with hearing loss. Results The Word-with-Noise Test consists of lists of monosyllabic and disyllabic words and speech spectrum noise (Stage 1). The application strategy for the test was defined as the determination of the Speech Recognition Threshold with a fixed noise level at 55 dBHL (Stage 2). Regarding criterion validity, the instrument demonstrated adequate ability to distinguish between normal-hearing subjects and subjects with hearing loss (Stage 3). Reference values for the test were established as cut-off points expressed in terms of signal-to-noise ratio: 1.47 dB for the monosyllabic stimulus and -2.02 dB for the disyllabic stimulus. Conclusion: The Word-with-Noise Test proved to be quick to administer and interpret, making it a useful tool in audiological clinical practice. Furthermore, it showed satisfactory evidence of criterion validity, with established reference values.

This study was conducted to define the various meanings of the modern Chinese polysemous verb “开” based on semantic profile and base of verb from the perspective of cognitive linguistics and presents a schematic for how these meanings are connected and have changed over time. This paper is divided into four parts:BR 1) The cognitive linguistics concepts of profile and base are based on the perceptual psychology concepts of appearance and foundation, respectively. Perception is the consciousness of the entire image of an object caused by the stimulation of the sensory organs. It is also defined as a basic stage of recognition of objective reality through direct and emotional simulation.BR 2) In order to analyze the combination conditions of the verb “开,” first data about “开x” was collected based on the heading characters of the verb “开” included in the Modern Chinese Dictionary (7th Edition). Out of a total of 195 heading characters, only “verbs” were selected based on modern standard Chinese and the semantic roles of “开” were classified. Data about “x开” were targeted for 18 vocabulary words, including the predicative components searched at high frequency in the heading characters and the corpus presented in the Modern Chinese Reverse Dictionary (2011). Based on this data, the following six semantic profiles were generated: separation, open, expansion, start, movement, and appearance.BR 3) Frequently used polysemous verbs become multilingual through metaphor or metonymy. This study examined what mechanisms are used and how it is involved when the verb “开” is involved in the process of expanding meanings. The separation and open categories reflected the cognitive effects of metaphor while the expansion, start, movement, and appearance categories showed the cognitive effects of metonymy.BR 4) Finally, the profile category of each example was defined according to the semantic qualities of the patterns in which words in those categories combined with the polysemous verb “开.” An abstract image schema was implemented by dividing the profile and base based on the words from which the meanings were derived.

Textile production played a significant role in Ancient China and the related expressions entered into the scope of daily life. The present research intends to study the conceptual metaphors involving thread or string in Chinese and sheds some light on Chinese cognition of guān-xi (关系 relation) or lian-xi (联系 link). On the basis of data collected from Center for Chinese Linguistics (CCL) and Modern Chinese Dictionary, an investigation of experiential-based conceptual metaphors of thread is made, in terms of the prototypicality and image schema of LINK.