ГЕНДЕРНА ЛЕКСИКА НІМЕЦЬКОЇ МОВИ: ТЕОРЕТИЧНІ ЗАСАДИ ТА ОСВІТНЬО-МЕТОДИЧНИЙ КОНТЕКСТ

Please pass me the skin coloured crayon! Semantics, socialisation, and folk models of race in contemporary Europe

In this article, we have analyzed the different expression models of the object in the German language. The main theoretical issues of sentence constituents have remained a subject of discussion until now. One such issue is the determination of the object of the sentence and the means used to express it. We are already aware of the differences in grammatical categories in languages with different systems. In different grammatical sources, we witness various approaches to the grammatical subject. Sometimes, under this term, the subject is presented as the doer of the action or the one performing the attribute. Sometimes, under this term, the subject is presented as the doer of the action or the one performing the attribute. According to many linguists, the subject, called the nominative, indicates the active participant in the event. A more refined analytical method was needed for the identification of sentence constituents, as well as for the analysis of the syntactic semantics of words, their interrelations, and the meaning of the sentence. In this process, the theory of verb valency plays a foundational role, and determining the different meanings of valencies is one of the challenging issues in linguistics. This analysis is a classification of the lexical meaning of nouns and verbs.

Corpus linguistics and computational linguistics are two language-related fields of study with somewhat different aims that nevertheless show great methodological overlap and interplay. In corpus linguistics, the empirical study of collections of naturally occurring text—corpora—is the core instrument for doing linguistics. Its goal is to further our understanding of language, just as in other branches of linguistics. Computational linguistics engages itself with the computational processing of language data, where sometimes the aim is to learn more about language per se and/or the languages studied, and sometimes the aim is to learn more about the effectiveness of the technological solutions used for this processing. Present-day computational linguistics is almost exclusively data-driven in nature, which means that in practice, corpora play a central role here, too, as sources for the machine learning algorithms that underlie the computational linguistic techniques. Moreover, as the computational tools developed in computational linguistics improve and the reliance on larger materials in corpus linguistics increases, the tools developed in the former play an increasingly important role in supporting the latter. There is not much genuine computational or corpus-based comparative or contrastive work specifically involving Germanic languages as Germanic languages, focused on comparison within the group of Germanic languages or comparison of the whole group with other language groups. However, there is a wealth of work presenting single-language studies and, especially, data sets and resources that can support corpus-based research on Germanic languages, both of the computational linguistic kind and of corpus linguistic nature.

Steven N. Dworkin and Dieter Wanner (eds.), New approaches to old problems: issues in romance historical linguistics: E. F. Konrad Koerner (general ed.), Amsterdam Studies in the theory and history of linguistic science, Series IV, Current issues in linguistic theory, vol. 210. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2000. xiv+235 pp. US $79.00.

Although English and German are both Germanic languages, due to various historical changes, many of their cognates are no longer easily recognizable. This study examined whether knowledge of language history can be beneficial to learners when learning English–German cognates. Thirty‐five English‐speaking second language (L2) learners of 3rd‐semester German at an American university were assigned to either an intentional or incidental learning condition. The intentional group received explicit instruction on 2 historical sounds shifts (Second Germanic Sound Shift, Ingvaeonic Palatalization) and relevant historical semantic changes. In contrast, the incidental group carried out various activities that exposed learners to cognates through reading and oral communication tasks. Results indicate that the intentional group significantly outperformed the incidental group, suggesting that knowledge of language history can be beneficial to learners when learning historically related languages. Declarative knowledge of the historical changes led to significantly greater vocabulary gains and it also provided learners with a tool kit to correctly predict the meaning of several cognates they had not previously encountered before. This study has broad implications for vocabulary learning, language teaching, and applied historical linguistics.

This volume interfaces three fields of linguistics rarely discussed in the same context. Its underlying theme is linguistic variation, and the ways in which historical linguists and dialectologists may learn from insights offered by typology, and vice versa. The aim of the contributions is to raise the awareness of these linguistic subdisciplines of each other and to encourage their cross-fertilization to their mutual benefit. If linguistic typology is to unify the study of all types of linguistic variation, this variation, both diatopic and diachronic, will enrich typological research itself. With the aim of capturing the relevant dimensions of variation, the studies in this volume make use of new methodologies, including electronic corpora and databases, which enable cross- and intralinguistic comparisons dialectally and across time. Based on original research and unified by an innovative theme, the volume will be of interest to both students and teachers of linguistics and Germanic languages.

Introduction In linguistics, the term ‘word’ is a conceptual enigma. Although linguistically it is treated as one of the fundamental compositional units of a language, in the history of linguistics, the independent identity of a word has often been questioned, challenged or ignored. Scholars of linguistics have been often reluctant to acknowledge the separate linguistic identity of words because of their varied surface forms and functions within a piece of text. This leads Matthews (1974) to argue that it is not a word, but a morpheme, which is important in establishing relation of a word with phonology, syntax and semantics. Aronoff (1981) also ignores the separate identity of word as he considers word as nothing but a phonetic string, which is connected to other linguistic entities lying outside the string. Selkirk (1983), on the other hand, treats word from a purely syntactic point of view as she identifies a set of word formation rules, which are applied to generate words. Bybee (1985) interlinks words with morphology to argue that a word should never be studied free from its meaning, as the meaning of morphemes and contexts determine several linguistic properties used in formal expression of words. Jensen (1990) argues that it is not words but morphemes, which are primary structural units, and which are typically but not necessarily meaningful. Therefore, it is sensible to focus on morphemes rather than on words in word formation. Spencer (1991) tries to build up an interface that underlies between morphology and phonology to understand linguistic entity of words. His basic idea of word includes inflectional morphology with an underlying interface between syntax and morphology by which one can explore the processes involved in word formation. In essence, word is a complex linguistic concept, which is difficult to define in straight terms. Citing different examples from various languages as well as observations of various experts of the field, it can be argued that the concept of word is actually interlinked with several linguistic issues such as, pronunciation, lexicology, orthography, morphology, grammar, meaning, derivation, inflection, convention, usage, etc. which directly or indirectly play crucial roles in identification of words in a natural language.

A recent strand in research in historical linguistics has argued that language change often involves constructional routinization (e.g., Traugott and Trousdale 2013), while recent psycholinguistic work has also suggested parallels between alignment, routinization, and change (Garrod and Pickering 2013) — such routines have been shown to emerge in conversational flow as a product of interaction between speakers and hearers. Similar claims have been made for the development of musical routines in improvisation: much improvisational work involves the use of prefabricated routines (Torrance and Schumann 2018). This article seeks to contribute to the debate on creativity by providing an analysis of some of the similarities and differences between musical and linguistic conventions, including a comparison of creative improvisation in music and innovation in language. The discussion is couched in a cognitive linguistic framework with a particular focus on linguistic constructions (see the overview in Hoffmann and Trousdale 2013) and a reflection of how this might be extended to consider aspects of the cognitive representation of musical structures.

Proceedings of the Twenty-First Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society: General Session and Parasession on Historical Issues in Sociolinguistics/Social Issues in Historical Linguistics (1995)

Proceedings of the Twenty-First Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society: General Session and Parasession on Historical Issues in Sociolinguistics/Social Issues in Historical Linguistics (1995)

The status of certain problems of statistical inference that have been encountered in mathematical and computational linguistics is described. Underlying statistical theory and techniques are illustrated by a variety of examples from structural, comparative, and historical linguistics. Concurrently, the relationships of some theoretical issues in statistical linguistics to practical matters in computational linguistics are briefly treated. Also, several areas in mathematical and computational linguistics of promising research interest for computer or information scientists are noted. Finally, the need for more interdisciplinary studies involving computer scientists, linguists, and mathematicians is pointed out.

One of the major issues in historical and contact linguistics is how to distinguish between inherited and acquired vocabulary in a given language: both traditional historical linguistics and modern contact linguistics are in this respect eventually forced to resort to inferences. The aim of this paper is to propose a diagnostic test to aid in the identification of putative substratum relics in the lexicon. The method for this test consists in juxtaposing and comparing word families in the source and recipient language. We use the example of Yiddish-Slavic language contact, in which contact-induced changes are still relatively transparent. We employ wordnets – digital networks of lexical entities connected by lexico-semantic relations – in order to visually “map” lexical and semantic relations of transferred lexemes within the recipient language onto the source language. The method allows us to combine contemporary empirical data with historical analysis.

Proceedings of the Twenty-First Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society: General Session and Parasession on Historical Issues in Sociolinguistics/Social Issues in Historical Linguistics (1995)

JACOB GRIMM'S INCLUSION OF LOANWORDS AND COMPOUNDS IN THEDEUTSCHES WÖRTERBUCH* Chauncey J.Mellor Jacob Grimm designed his epoch-making historical dictionary of German, the Deutsches Wörterbuch (DWB), to accommodate the needs of two clearly distinct, if not opposing audiences, scholars in Germâmes and the German populace at large. As such, it was a comprehensive patriotic work which when finished would strengthen German linguistic, and political, unity. For the already aged Grimm, both speed and comprehensiveness were essential to his ends. Like all lexicographers, Grimm sought reasonable ways to limit his task, but often accommodations to the needs of one intended audience, scholarly or popular, forced him to accept compromises in the dictionary's purpose and method. His choices reveal much about the relationships of his linguistic theory and practice of lexicography. As worthwhile dictionaries do, the DWB also elicited heated criticism on numerous points of form and substance, from critics representing each audience. The two contested areas I wish to discuss here are loanwords and compounds. Both force hard decisions on the German lexicographer because both represent infinitely extensible tasks. Also, in the minds of many, including Grimm, compounds and loans were two manifestations of the same need for expansion of existing vocabulary. He could accept neither too little nor too much. Grimm attempted to solve his dilemma by omitting many loans and admitting, but slighting the treatment of many compounds. Curiously he rejected loans as undue foreign influence, while he slighted compounds on the grounds that the English preference for Simplexes should provide German with the proper behavioral model. Grimm's reasoning is interesting. The well-known ability of German to form compounds raises two problems . First, the linguistic issue consists of establishing a boundary between compounds formed more or less spontaneously, as it were by syntactic processes, and those already possessing more of an identity as a lexical unit. In his Deutsche Grammatik, Grimm had thoroughly investigated these questions and brought to his work on the DWB a distinct theoretical linguistic bias. Compounds with a connective resembling case inflection were not truly words, but phrases. On the other hand, very many such compounds in German arise in semi-technical usages, where they rapidly achieve a measure of distinct semantic identity. Thus, compounds may be of little linguistic, but substantial general interest; their inclusion amounts to expanded coverage of special vocabularies. Needless to say, this clash *An earlier version of this paper was distributed to prospective participants in the MLA Special Session on Lexicography in December 1977. 69 70JACOB GRIMM between encyclopedic and linguistic criteria for listing an entry became all the more acute in a "comprehensive" DWB. The matter of loanwords has a heated and checkered history in German closely related to that of compounds. Germans have alternated between periods of profligate borrowing and staunch purism. Grimm lived in an era of growing purism, especially in scholarly circles, and he found himself in essential agreement with the purists' ends, while rejecting most of their methods. Moreover, the citation file for the DWB was built on works from a period when loanwords were much more freely used. As in English, they constituted a large part of the learned vocabulary. The potential for conflict is obvious when a puristically inclined scholar writes a "comprehensive, historical" dictionary so that a general audience may have access to this cultural heritage of previous centuries. Connecting the issues of loanwords and compounds, Grimm's purist colleagues had been attempting for two centuries to "Germanize" loans by systematically coining new replacement compounds, a procedure he abhorred. A third, independent and very complex issue was the conflict between prescription and description in the DWB. Two fundamental themes in Grimm's theory of language profoundly affected his attitudes on this question: 1) the language community and the nation are synonymous; 2) language may only be understood inductively through the use of Sprachgefühl. When Grimm defined a nation (volk) as the embodiment of people who speak the same language, he conferred primacy on language in deciding matters of ethnic or political identity.1 While these two ideas interacted, language was basic, nation derivative. By his own extension, an influence on the German language...

Themes in West Africa's History. Edited by Emmanuel Kwaku Akyeampong. Athens: Ohio University Press, 2006. Pp. xvi, 323; illustrations. $49.95 cloth, $24.50 paper. For many years African historians have been troubled by the lack of choices for suitable textbooks for survey courses in their field. Some presented Eurocentric or romantic images of Africa; others overwhelmed the student with far more detail than most undergraduates could absorb. Within the field of West African history, the situation has been somewhat better with what we now might consider classical works by John Fage, John Webster, and Adu Boahen, as well as the two volume anthology edited by A. J. E. Ajayi and Michael Crowder.1 Still, this new collection of essays, edited by Emmanuel Akyeampong serves as a valuable addition. In sharp contrast to other surveys, Akyeampong directed his contributors to emphasize both methodological issues and broad thematic issues. Akyeampong enriched the collection to include archaeologists, anthropologists, economists, and historians of religion. This collection allows students to be exposed to major issues in West African history and to see how scholars from different disciplines as well as from different continents understand this history. Many of these essays are useful to specialists, as well. Akyeampong divides the anthology into three sections: an initial section that focuses on some distinctive research methods; a middle section focusing on broad themes in West African history; and a final section on contemporary West Africa. I will examine each section in turn. The first four essays offer archaeological, ecological, and linguistic approaches, and an analysis of oral traditions. Susan McIntosh provides an interesting overview of archaeological evidence for early West African history. Her attention to the relationship between ecological changes, the beginnings of agriculture, the spread of iron technologies, as well as the way that archaeologists analyze this data is very useful. My only criticism is that the decision to use both BCE and BP systems of dating confuse readers who are not used to the BP designation. Unfortunately, there is considerable overlap in the materials presented by McIntosh and James Webb's ecological chapter. M. E. K. Dakobu provides a history of historical linguistics and the specific techniques of interpreting linguistic data historically, as well as an analysis of some of the methodological problems in utilizing these methods in a West African context. David Conrad's analysis of oral traditions confines itself to epic narratives of the Mandinka and provides a skillful analysis of the limitations and utility of analyzing these texts in reconstructing a history of Mali. The essay could have been strengthened, however, by broadening to include a wider variety of oral traditions, such as women's nanatives and those of slaves, or by including examples from less stratified societies. The second section provides six thematic essays on West African history. Patrick Manning presents a clear analysis of the dramatic increase in the West African slave trade, from the relatively small volume of the trans-Saharan trade to the dramatic increase in the seventeenth- and eighteenth-century trans-Atlantic slave trade. While examining the role of various European powers and the influence of the plantation system of the Americas, Manning could have examined more closely the impact on both centralized and acephalous African societies, in terms of economic development, international relations, and religious practices. …