Надгробные памятники суфийских шейхов в восточной части Кыргызстана караханидской эпохи

The object of the study is the adoption of Islam by the population of the Southern Ural. The subject of the study is the question of the time of the adoption of Islam in the territory of modern Bashkortostan – the largest region of the Southern Urals. The author examines in detail such aspects of the topic as the historiography of the issue, the spread of Islam among Bashkirs according to narrative sources – information from foreign travelers and Bashkir legends, archaeological sites with a Muslim funeral rite. In historiography, the question of the time of the adoption of Islam by Bashkirs has been repeatedly revised in the direction of antiquity. Narrative sources link the Islamization of Bashkirs with the activities of missionaries from Volga Bulgaria and the Golden Horde. In archeology, the spread of Islam on the territory of Bashkortostan is associated with the Chiyalik culture of the XII-XIV centuries. Special attention is paid to the funerary monuments of the nomadic population of steppe origin, dated XIII-XV centuries. Having settled in the land of Bashkirs, the nomads converted to Islam. A special contribution of the author to the study of the topic is a comparative analysis of the "pagan" and Muslim burials of the XIII-XV centuries, identified within the republic. A total of 84 burials were recorded. Of these, 31 burials were performed according to the "pagan" rite, dated XIII-XIV centuries., 53 burials were performed according to the Muslim rite, dated XIV-XV centuries. It is concluded that the archaeological data correspond to written sources reporting the adoption of Islam in Bashkiria in the XIV century. The novelty of the study lies in clarifying the dating of the three main stages of Islamization of the region's population. The penetration of Islam into the Bashkir environment occurs in the pre–Mongol period, the spread of Islam – in the Golden Horde period, the establishment of Islam - after the XV century. The process of Islamization ends with the disappearance of the burial burial rite and the transition to the modern Muslim funeral rite. Voluntary entry into Russia guaranteed Bashkirs freedom of religion.

After the acceptance of Islam by Turkic people, the Arabic script was introduced and became prevalent in the region of Turkestan. From the time of the Karakhanid dynasty, the first Turkic-Islamic state, numerous works were composed and transcribed using the Arabic script. These works now serve as valuable historical texts for scholars and researchers. Arabic script remained in use in Kazakhstan until the 1920s. Despite sporadic research efforts to uncover and analyze Turkic texts transcribed in the Arabic script, these works received limited attention during the Soviet era. However, since Kazakhstan gained independence, there has been a surge in studies aimed at exploring these historical texts. In such studies, the transcription of the texts is typically conducted using Cyrillic or Latin script, and in some cases, both are employed. Following the initiation of Kazakhstan's transition to the Latin alphabet in 2017, there has been renewed interest in transcribing Turkic texts written in the Arabic script. This study aims to re-evaluate the transcription alphabet employed in previous research on historical texts in Kazakhstan and propose a new transcription system that is suitable for the new Latin script. The proposed alphabet will be applied to the Chagatai manuscripts of Divān-i Hikmet, Qıṣṣa-i Sulṭān Ḥubbı̇̄, Destūr'ül-‘ilāj and Durruʾl-ʿacāyib, located in Kazakhstan. The last two works, which have significant historical and linguistic value, have not yet been extensively studied by scholars. Destūr'ül-‘ilāj is a medical book on Central Asian herbalism and medicine, written in Chagatai, a language with Classical Period features. Durruʾl-ʿacāyib is a collection of 66 chapters that narrates hadiths and belongs to Chagatai's Post-Classical Period.

Wherever there have been significant numbers of Muslims outside of Arabia, there has been some Ajami literacy. This is because Ajami results from the spread of Islam and its accompanying Arabic script. Just as the Latin script was adapted for some languages when Christianity was adopted by many cultures, Islam also introduced the Arabic script to sub-Saharan Africa and was modified to write numerous African languages. The techniques used in contemporary Ajami writings are ancient. The Arabic script itself is believed to have resulted from analogous techniques applied to the ancient Aramaic script. This chapter shows how dual literacies in Arabic and Ajami have spread in West Africa as the result of the expansion of Islam and its Quranic education system, proselytizing, and the circulation of people and texts.

REPRESENTATIONS OF WARRIORS ON EARLY MEDIEVAL TURKIC BRONZE PLAQUES FROM EASTERN CENTRAL ASIA

The life and activities of Ioann Maxymovych (1651-1715), a prominent church figure and writer, have repeatedly attracted the attention of researchers. A significant number of investigations are dedicated to his biography and creative works. Almost his entire life was associated with Ukraine. Ioann Maxymovych – educator, church figure, missionary, spiritual writer, Archbishop of Chernihiv and Novgorod-Siversky, Metropolitan of Tobolsk, belongs to the ranks of saints, enlightener of the peoples of Siberia, founder of the first higher education institution on the Left-Bank of Ukraine – Chernihiv Collegium. Spent the majority of his life working and living in Ukraine, only heading the Tobolsk diocese in Siberia during the last years of his life.
 The research is dedicated to the activities of Ioann Maxymovych, a talented ukrainian educator, enlightener, cultural and religious figure, missionary, and philanthropist. The article examines the last years of Ioann Maxymovych's life, which correspond to the period of 1711-1715. The study highlights the experience of his missionary and enlightening-philanthropic activities. The research emphasizes the importance of his efforts in the development of education and enlightenment (support and care for Slavic schools, financing and maintenance of libraries and the diocesan printing house, etc.) and missionary activities (ecclesiastical-diplomatic missions to preserve and spread the orthodox faith among the population).

Data on known Dagestan religious and political figure of the 19th century - the Sufi Sheikh Abdurakhman-Haji as-Suguri - found in the Arabic collection of Sufi biographies “Khikaya va manaqib al-Mashaikh an-naqshbandiyina” by Sharafaddin al-Kikuni are considered. The authors of the article translated the fragments of the section of this work. On the example of the analysis of this information, an attempt is made to study the biography of a famous historical figure in the context of the narrative about the surreal events that took place in his life. In the course of work on the text, details are revealed that clarify previously known facts from the biography of a famous religious figure who played an important role in the spread of Sufism ideology in Dagestan. The authors raise the question of the expediency of using the revealed information in research works as a historical source. The textual, historical and philological analysis of the above-mentioned work by Sheikh Sharafaddin al-Kikuni is carried out. Attention is paid to the interpretation of the hagiographic components of the Sufi text, which are closely intertwined with well-known episodes from the biography of Abdurahman-Haji as-Suguri. The researchers conclude that the information about Sheikh as-Sughuri, given in the collection, deserve the attention of experts in various fields of humanitarian knowledge: philologists, historians, religious scholars, ethnographers, etc. Its consideration is important for the study of social, religious and cultural life of Dagestan society of the late 19th - early 20th centuries.

The article examines Siyar al-Nabi by Mustafa Zarrir and explores its lexical and phonetic features. It also provides information about the date of composition and thematic content of this work, which is being published and studied in Azerbaijan for the first time. Siyar al-Nabi is a translated work compiled on the basis of the writings of Arab biographers (siyar authors). Mustafa Zarrir translated Siyar al-Nabi from the work of Abu’l-Hasan Ahmad ibn Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Bakri entitled Al-Anwar wa Miftah al-Surur wa al-Afkar fi Mawlid al-Nabiyy al-Mukhtar. Dedicated to the life of Prophet Muhammad, Siyar al-Nabi stands out as one of the most significant and beloved works distinguished by its moral and didactic value. The monument is regarded as a highly valuable linguistic and historical source for studying both the history of Turkic peoples and the Azerbaijani language. The work provides a clear picture of the vocabulary and lexical peculiarities of its time. The manuscript has been transliterated from the Arabic script into the modern Azerbaijani alphabet and is being published for the first time.

Abdurreshid Ibrahim (d. 1944) was a prominent intellectual and traveler of the late Ottoman period, known for his efforts to promote unity within the Turkic-Islamic world. His travels and observations, particularly recorded in his work Âlem-i Islâm and his treatises Dîn-i Fıtrî and Vicdan Muhasebesi ve İnsaf Terazisi, reflect his deep engagement with the study of religions. Due to his religious observations in Japan, he is often referred to as the “Al-Biruni of Japan.”rnHuman beings, by their very nature, are in constant search for meaning. Fundamental existential questions such as where we come from, why we live, and where we are going are central to this quest. Religion, as a phenomenon that addresses these questions, has remained indispensable throughout history. Disciplines such as history, archaeology, and anthropology generally agree that no known society has existed without some form of religion. Abdurreshid Ibrahim's statement, “Human nature is sustained by religion” (“Fıtrat-ı beşer din ile kaimdir”), reinforces this view.rnThe attempt to understand religions has evolved alongside human civilization. Evidence of early religious thought can be found in ancient texts and mythologies. One of the earliest known figures to study other belief systems was the historian Herodotus, whose Histories contain observations about the religions of other peoples. However, the first systematic studies of religion can be traced to the Islamic world. Muslim scholars such as al-Biruni, with his work Tahqīq mā li’l-Hind, and al-Shahrastani, with al-Milal wa’l-Nihal, are recognized even by Western historians of religion as pioneers in both methodology and content.rnAl-Biruni, having spent many years in India and learned Sanskrit, engaged in dialogue with local religious leaders, visited sacred sites, and analyzed primary texts. He aimed to provide an objective account of India’s religious, philosophical, and cultural traditions. His ultimate goal was to facilitate the spread of Islam by first thoroughly understanding the religious context of the region. In his work, he frequently compared Islamic beliefs with Indian religions and discussed how different belief systems could be understood and evaluated.rnFollowing in Biruni’s footsteps, Abdurreshid Ibrahim traveled extensively—from Russia and Arabia to India, China, and Japan—with the ideal of Turkic-Islamic unity in mind. His observations led him to the conclusion that successful religious outreach requires a deep understanding of the beliefs and cultures of others. Accordingly, he carefully documented his encounters with other faiths, striving to maintain objectivity, and provided firsthand data that served as a valuable resource for future scholars.rnIn Japan especially, his detailed observations earned him the title “the Biruni of Japan.” He also criticized Western imperialism and missionary activity, arguing that the West was a source of conflict and moral corruption in the East. His treatises Dîn-i Fıtrî, which presents Islam as the most natural and essential religion for human beings, and Vicdan Muhasebesi ve İnsaf Terazisi, written to refute Christian missionary arguments, reflect this worldview.rnThis study first explores Abdurreshid Ibrahim’s life and scholarly background. It then examines his contributions to the history of religions through his observations in Japan, and finally provides an analysis and modern translation of his key treatises, offering insights into the development of the study of religions in the Islamic world during his time.

In the 19th century, Armenians living within the borders of the Ottoman Empire who spoke Turkish produced numerous works on religion, language, history, literature, and other subjects using their own alphabet.One notable aspect of missionary activity aimed at spreading Christianity among the Turks was the translation of the Bible into Turkish. The work examined in this study is a translation of the Bible into late Ottoman Turkish, narrating the life, teachings, and miracles of Jesus Christ –from his birth to his final days. The full title of the work is Yeni Ahit - İncil-i Şerif Arakâlların Amelleri, Boğosun ve Sayip Arakâlların Mektüpleri. It was originally translated from Greek into Turkish, and published in Istanbul in 1858. The text includes selected sections and epistles from the New Testament, one of the foundational scriptures of Christianity. The publication and dissemination of such works in the Ottoman Empire were intended to increase the accessibility of religious texts to local communities in various languages and scripts. During this period, Ottoman Turkish was frequently used for translating religious texts. These texts were often written not only in Arabic script, but also in Latin, Greek, and Armenian scripts. The use of Ottoman Turkish in this particular work is significant, as it reflects the linguistic characteristics of the era. From a cultural and linguistic perspective, Armenians established close relations with both Kipchaks and Anatolian Turks throughout history. As a result of these interactions, distinct written traditions emerged, such as “Kipchak written in Armenian script” and “Turkish written in Armenian script”, accompanied by a rich corpus of literary works. In recent years, scholarly interest in these two linguistic traditions has grown significantly in Turkey.This study analyzes the phonological and orthographic features of a Bible translation written in late Ottoman Turkish using the Armenian script. By presenting detailed phonetic and orthographic observations, this research aims to contribute to broader research on the phonological characteristics of the Turkish language during the late Ottoman period.

This article examines contradictory assessments of the activities of Shiite preacher Mir Shams al-Din ʻIraqi (1441–1526) in the religious history of medieval Kashmir. The study analyzes fundamental differences in interpretation of his role between contemporary Iranian historiography, which presents him as an outstanding religious reformer, and 18th c. Kashmiri Sunni sources that critically evaluate his missionary activities. Based on a comparison of the manuscript “Waqiʻat-i Kashmir” by Muhammad Aʻzam Didamari from the IOM RAS collection with works written by contemporary Iranian researchers, this study demonstrates how authors’ confessional affiliation influences the formation of historical memory regarding religious figures of the past.

In the abundance of epigraphic monuments and their historical and cultural significance, the ancient Aghul village of Richa stands out among other mountain villages and auls of Dagestan. The aim of this paper is to present the results of the study of Arabic inscriptions found in the village of Richa. More than twenty previously unknown inscriptions in various genres of epigraphy – construction, ownership and vital records, epitaphs and religious texts – have been for the first time introduced into modern linguistics. Notable among them are the most ancient monuments of Arabic Kufic writings, paleographically dated the XI-XII centuries, which testifies to the early popularization of Islam in Richa. In addition, the authors propose a new way of reading some of the Richa inscriptions that are already known to science. The presence of Kufic inscriptions on the walls of three mosques in Richa, as well as Naskh inscriptions dated 1242 on the walls of another mosque, suggest that mosques had existed in Richa even before the Mongols came here in 1239. Researchers have revealed the oldest dated epitaph in Richa (1300–01) in which the term alim (scholar) was used for the first time in the epigraphy of Dagestan. New valuable data have been obtained on the history of construction and reconstruction of Muslim places of worship, mausoleums, sanctuaries, and public buildings. Names of many local craftsmen, carvers and calligraphers have become known. The inscriptions contain valuable information on representatives of the medieval religious elites and Sufi figures. The rich social and professional terminology used in the newly identified Richa inscriptions is also of interest: sultan, shaykh, pir, murid, alim, qadi, ustad (usta), qatib, nakir, sahib, gulam, kavha. Translations of the texts are accompanied by scientific comments.

Yemen is a country with a long history of world civilization, both before and after the emergence of Islam. For the pre-Islamic period, the Qur’ān has talked about various tribes living in Yemen, such as the 'Ad and the Saba’ people. In the Islamic period, many Yemeni people played an important role in spreading Islam to various parts of the world. This article discusses the situation of Yemen in the 18th and 19th centuries, when massive turmoil occurred in the society. In terms of politics, Yemen was surrounded by a growing number of dynasties, such as the Ottoman dynasty of Turkey which belonged to the Sunni sect, the Safavid dynasty of Iran which belonged to the Shi’a sect, and the emergence of the Wahhabi movement in the Hejaz. At that time, Islamic states were being colonized by western countries, such as Egypt which was controlled by the French. Such conditions led to political turmoil in Yemen. In religious sense, there were various sects claiming truth one another in Yemen, among them were the Zaydi Shia and the Ismaili Shia. This caused hostilities among Muslim people at that time in Yemen. Keeping in view the social aspect, there was a social gap which led to feuding among the various social components in Yemen. The people of Sana’a city and its administration frequently went through unstable situations; moreover, wars among tribes for material purposes also occurred.

The urgency of this research lies in examining the role of Jawi script as a modified Arabic script used to write the Malay language, as well as its contribution to the spread of Islam and the formation of Arab-Malay cultural identity in the Nusantara. This study aims to describe the contribution of Jawi script in preserving the cultural values and traditions of the Malay community. This research employs a qualitative descriptive method. Data collection techniques include library research and digital documentation. The researcher applies source triangulation to ensure data validity. Data analysis is carried out using content analysis methods. The results show that Jawi script is not only a means of communication and Islamic propagation, but also a cultural heritage that records the intellectual and spiritual legacy of past societies. Although its usage has declined in recent times, various preservation efforts such as manuscript digitization and Jawi instruction in educational institutions are being promoted. The preservation of Jawi script is a strategic step in safeguarding the Arab-Malay cultural identity and heritage amidst the current of modernization.

Nestorian Christianity spread among the Altaic tribes, such as the Naiman, Merkit, Önggüt, Uyghurs, and Kereit, and made significant inroads among the Mongols during the eleventh century. The term ‘Nestorian’ describes Syriac-speaking minorities based initially in the region of Mesopotamia, what is now Iraq and Iran. The ‘conversion’ of the nomads to Christianity occurred as a result of missionary activity carried out among the Turkic tribes of Maru. In the eleventh century, the Merkit allied with the Kereit against the Liao dynasty. Aspects of Nestorian preaching by Sogdian teachers have survived in stone inscriptions, grave panels, and oblation idols throughout Mongolia and Inner Asia. The seventh level of the Pagoda contains three rhymed inscriptions that might well have been part of a poem.

For centuries Orthodox Georgians had a cordial disposition towards Roman Catholics. This was evident in everyday secular life, as well as in the religious sphere, marked by prayerful union, joint missionary activities in other countries, and theological openness. This is corroborated by written sources, such as official epistles of Georgian monarchs and church leaders—in which a readiness to recognize the supremacy of the Pope was expressed—and theological texts. In the entire history of Georgian theological literature there is one exception: a theological treatise written in the eighteenth century by a Georgian author, Catholicos-Patriarch Bessarion Orbelishvili. The treatise is the only text written in the Georgian language criticizing the Roman Catholic Church and its doctrine. The content of the work is quite biased, crude, and full of mistakes and inaccuracies; despite the vitriol, however, its status as the sole extant written text in Georgian critical of the Latins, as well surrounding historical circumstances, confirm that it was not indicative of Georgian feelings about Catholics overall.