Фундаментальные принципы и механизмы формирования сыропригодности молочного сырья

Tumor dormancy is a clinical phenomenon in which disseminated tumor cells remain asymptomatic and undetectable over a long period of time. Dormant cells are able to maintain quiescence in hostile microenvironments, escape frontline cancer therapies and evade the immune system, as well as their propensity to reactivate from latency and cause metastatic relapse. Although tumor dormancy is an important problem in the treatment of cancer, the molecular mechanisms underlying this complex process remain unclear. Because dormant cells are frequently found surrounded by a laminin-rich ECM, we hypothesized that ECM dimensionality intrinsically affects cell behaviors that predispose to dormancy. Accordingly, we assessed the biophysical and biochemical response of mammary epithelial cells (MECs) to compliant polyacrylamide (PA) gels and micropatterned surfaces in which ligand presentation and ECM dimensionality were modulated to recapitulate different ECM landscapes. Using traction force microscopy, atomic force microscopy indentation, and laser ablation studies, we found that a 3D ECM led to a drop in cortical tension of MECs. Computational modeling predicted that reduced cortical tension should lead to an increase in the number and/or residence time of actin protrusions as well as a net increase in negative membrane curvature. To test the prediction, we ectopically expressed F-actin and plasma membrane markers in MECs to examine the plasma membrane topography and actin protrusion dynamics. Indeed, MECs in 3D ECM had longer and more stable actin protrusions and more negative membrane curvature inducing proteins, including Exo70, at the plasma membrane. The enrichment of Exo70 at the plasma membrane accompanied the activation of Arf6, which led to an increase in Rac/p38 pro-survival signaling pathway. Consistently, we found that the non-spread cells were able to survive in 3D ECM but the non-spread MECs plated on either a soft 2D PA gels or rigid micropatterned adhesive islands died. We next examined if reduced cortical tension is sufficient to activate pro-survival pathways in cells in 2D. Importantly, pharmacological inhibition of myosin in non-spread MECs on a 2D ECM, which causes loss of cortical tension, increased negative membrane curvature and cell viability. Conversely, genetic knockdown of the negative curvature-inducing protein Exo70 compromised MEC survival in a 3D ECM. Our results provide the first evidence demonstrating that ECM dimensionality alters the biophysical properties of cells to modulate plasma membrane curvature and activate pro-survival signaling pathways. Our findings also offer a unique perspective for why Arf6 and Rac GTPases have been implicated in cancer aggression and suggest that targeting the tissue ECM or cellular cortical tension may provide a novel therapeutic approach to target dormant cells. Citation Format: FuiBoon Kai, Guanqing Ou, Alexandra Long, Wei Guo, Richard Tourdot, Ravi Radhakrishnan, Christopher Chen, Sophie Dumont, Valerie M. Weaver. Extracellular matrix dimensionality reduces cellular cortical tension to stimulate pro-survival signaling in mammary epithelial cells [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2019; 2019 Mar 29-Apr 3; Atlanta, GA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2019;79(13 Suppl):Abstract nr 1028.

The ability of the murine mammary fat pad to directly stimulate the growth of mammary epithelial cells and to modulate the effects of various mammogenic agents has been investigated in a newly described, hormone- and serum-free coculture system. COMMA-1D mouse mammary epithelial cells were cultured for 5 or 7 d with various supplements in the absence or presence of epithelium-free mammary fat pad explants from virgin female BALB/c mice. Cocultured fat pad stimulated increases in the DNA content of COMMA-1D cultures by two- to threefold or six- to eightfold after 5 or 7 d, respectively. The mitogenic effect was additive to that of 10% fetal calf serum and could not be attributed to the release of prostaglandin E2 or synthesis of prostaglandins by epithelial cells. In addition, bovine serum albumin attenuated (P < 0.05) the mitogenic effect of cocultured mammary fat pad. Added alone, insulinlike growth factor-I, epidermal growth factor, and insulin increased (P < 0.05) total DNA of COMMA-1D cultures by 2.5-, 3.7-, and 2.3-fold, respectively. Cocultured mammary fat pad markedly interacted (P < 0.01) with these mitogens to yield final DNA values that were 21.2-, 13.3-, and 22.1-fold greater than in basal medium only. Associated with this proliferation was the formation of numerous domes above the COMMA-1D monolayer. There was no proliferative response to growth hormone or prolactin in the absence or presence of cocultured fat pad (P > 0.05). Whereas hydrocortisone did not alter cell number, it attenuated (P < 0.05) the mitogenic effect of cocultured mammary fat pad. These results indicate that the murine mammary fat pad is not only a direct source of mitogenic activity, but also modulates the response of mammary epithelial cells to certain mammogens.

We have analyzed the expression of the breast cancer susceptibility gene, Brca2, in mammary epithelial cells as a function of proliferation and differentiation. Our results demonstrate that Brca2 mRNA expression is tightly regulated during mammary epithelial proliferation and differentiation, and that this regulation occurs coordinately with Brca1. Specifically, Brca2 mRNA expression is up-regulated in rapidly proliferating cells; is down-regulated in response to serum deprivation; is expressed in a cell cycle-dependent manner, peaking at the G1/S boundary; and is up-regulated in differentiating mammary epithelial cells in response to glucocorticoids. In each case, an identical pattern of expression was observed for Brca1. These results indicate that proliferative stimuli modulate the mRNA expression of these two breast cancer susceptibility genes. In addition, the coordinate regulation of Brca1 and Brca2 revealed by these experiments suggests that these genes are induced by, and may function in, overlapping regulatory pathways involved in the control of cell proliferation and differentiation.

Although the inductive interactions which trigger epithelial morphogenesis have been extensively described, little is known about the transcription factors involved in these processes. During mammary gland morphogenesis, we report the expression of the transcription factor c-ets-1 and one of its target genes uPA in mesenchymal cells during early stages of epithelial invasion, and later in epithelial cells themselves. In vitro studies show that both c-ets-1 and uPA mRNAs can be induced in cultured normal mammary epithelial cells in response to medium conditioned by MRC-5 fibroblasts. In contrast, invasive tumorigenic cell lines from the mammary epithelium express constitutively c-ets-1 and uPA while non-invasive tumorigenic cells do not. In three dimensional co-cultures in collagen gels, a preferential expression of these genes is detected in epithelial cells migrating through the gel either at the tips of normal ducts or in cancerous cells which are scattering. These genes are also expressed in the neighboring fibroblasts. In MRC-5 fibroblasts, conditioned media from tumorigenic epithelial cells induce more efficiently c-ets-1 and uPA mRNA accumulation than do conditioned medium from normal cells. These results suggest that epithelial-mesenchymal interactions trigger c-ets-1 and uPA expression in both compartments during mammary gland morphogenesis. The expression of the genes correlates with invasiveness of epithelial cells irrespective of their being normal or cancerous.

Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta) is a polypeptide growth factor that affects the accumulation of extracellular matrix by many cell types. We have examined the ability of mouse mammary epithelial (NMuMG) cells to respond to TGF-beta and assessed the effect of the growth factor on the expression of their cell surface heparan sulfate/chondroitin sulfate hybrid proteoglycan. NMuMG cells respond maximally to 3 ng/ml TGF-beta and the response is consistent with occupancy of the type III receptor. However, cells that are polarized, as shown by sequestration of the cell surface PG at their basolateral surfaces, must have the growth factor supplied to that site for maximal response. Immunological quantification of proteoglycan core protein on treated cells suggests that the cells have an unchanging number of this proteoglycan at their cell surface. Nonetheless, metabolic labeling with radiosulfate shows a approximately 2.5-fold increase in 35SO4- glycosaminoglycans in this proteoglycan fraction, defined either by its lipophilic, antigenic, or cell surface properties. Kinetic studies indicate that the enhanced radiolabeling is due to augmented synthesis, rather than slower degradation. Analysis of the glycosaminoglycan composition of the proteoglycan shows an increased amount of chondroitin sulfate, suggesting that the increased labeling per cell may be attributed to an augmented synthesis of chondroitin sulfate glycosaminoglycan on the core protein that also bears heparan sulfate, thus altering the proportions of these two glycosaminoglycans on this hybrid proteoglycan. We conclude that TGF-beta may affect NMuMG cell behavior by altering the structure and thus the activity of this proteoglycan.

Lactogenic hormones and extracellular matrix regulate expression of IGF-1 linked to MMTV-LTR in mammary epithelial cells

Mammalian milk contains ceruloplasmin, but little is known about additional forms in which copper is provided the infant by this fluid. A human mammary epithelial cell line (PMC42) with the characteristics and hormone responsiveness of normal mammary cells (Michalczyk et al, J Histochem Cytochem 56: 389, 2008) was employed to begin to address this issue. Polarized PMC42 cell monolayers with tight junctions, grown in bicameral chambers with and without lactational hormones, were supplied with 64Cu‐labeled Cu attached to purified plasma proteins (albumin and alpha‐2‐macroglobulin) on the basal side. Apical secretions were collected at various times thereafter. Ultrafiltration and size exclusion chromatography (SEC) of the secretions indicated that 10‐30% of the 64Cu was attached to 3 components in the range of 1‐2 kDa. The rest was with major and minor components of ~160 and 800 kDa, respectively. The 800 and 1‐2 kDa components increased with hormone treatment. Stable Cu components of similar sizes were detected via SEC/HPLC directly coupled to ICP‐MS, but with domination of the low molecular weight forms. Ceruloplasmin was detected in the secretions by rocket immunoelectrophoresis. The results suggest that in addition to ceruloplasmin, several other forms of copper are secreted by mammary epithelial cells into the milk. Supported by PHS Grant No. RO1 HD 46949.

Exposure to high ambient temperature affects buffalo productivity significantly in hot climate areas. Till date, no data is available on the heat stress response of mammary epithelial cells (MECs) in buffaloes. The present work aimed to examine the long term temporal changes in mRNA expression pattern of various heat shock proteins (HSP) genes in buffalo MECs during heat stress condition. For the study, we utilized the primary mammary epithelial cells of riverine buffalo and were exposed to thermal stress condition at 42°C for one hour. The cells were subsequently allowed to recover at 37°C and harvested at different time intervals (30 min to 48hr) along with control samples (unstressed). All the HSP (HSP40, HSP60, HSP70, HSP90, and HSPB1) showed immediate induction in their expression after heat shock and remained upregulated at the later stages as well. Amongst these, HSP70 gene showed maximal induction in its expression while HSP40 was found to be second most abundantly expressed HSP. Our present data thus provides the strong clue about the responsiveness of buffalo MECs to heat stress suggesting its suitability as an in vitro model to understand the modulation of buffalo mammary gland expression signature in response to environmental heat load.

Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) isoforms are secreted as inactive complexes formed through non-covalent interactions between bioactive TGF-β entities and their N-terminal pro-domains called latency-associated peptides (LAP). Extracellular activation of latent TGF-β within this complex is a crucial step in the regulation of TGF-β activity for tissue homeostasis and immune cell function. We previously showed that the matrix glycoprotein Tenascin-X (TN-X) interacted with the small latent TGF-β complex and triggered the activation of the latent cytokine into a bioactive TGF-β. This activation most likely occurs through a conformational change within the latent TGF-β complex and requires the C-terminal fibrinogen-like (FBG) domain of the glycoprotein. As the FBG-like domain is highly conserved among the Tenascin family members, we hypothesized that Tenascin-C (TN-C), Tenascin-R (TN-R) and Tenascin-W (TN-W) might share with TN-X the ability to regulate TGF-β bioavailability through their C-terminal domain. Here, we demonstrate that purified recombinant full-length Tenascins associate with the small latent TGF-β complex through their FBG-like domains. This association promotes activation of the latent cytokine and subsequent TGF-β cell responses in mammary epithelial cells, such as cytostasis and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Considering the pleiotropic role of TGF-β in numerous physiological and pathological contexts, our data indicate a novel common function for the Tenascin family in the regulation of tissue homeostasis under healthy and pathological conditions.

Mastitis seriously affects the mammary health of humans and animals. Studies have found that inflammation and oxidative stress play key roles in the occurrence and development of mastitis. Therefore, in-depth research on related molecular mechanisms is of great significance. Postpartum mice were anesthetized with pentobarbital and administered lipopolysaccharide to develop the mouse mastitis model. Proteomic analysis was performed to compare protein expression in mitochondria-associated endoplasmic reticulum membranes (MAM) from two mouse mammary gland groups. Western blot was used to detect the expression of MAM-related proteins in mitochondria. AlphaFold3 was used to predict the molecular structures of phosphofurin acidic cluster sorting protein 2 (PACS2) and mitofusin 2 (MFN2) and their interaction levels. The MFN2-PACS2 interaction was investigated using co-immunoprecipitation and small interfering RNA. The results showed that the inflammation level in the mammary gland tissue of mice with mastitis significantly increased, the total antioxidant capacity decreased, and the expression of MAM-related proteins MFN2 and PACS2 was significantly downregulated. In cell experiments, overexpression of MFN2 can inhibit inflammation and oxidative stress responses, and promote the interaction between MFN2 and PACS2 to affect the formation of MAMs. In summary, this study suggests that mastitis can alter the expression of MAM-related proteins in mouse breast tissue. The interaction between MFN2 and PACS2 regulates the formation of MAMs. Overexpression of MFN2 can promote the formation of MAMs and inhibit inflammation and oxidative stress response in mammary epithelial cells. Our results provided a new theoretical basis and potential therapeutic targets for the prevention and treatment of mastitis.

Bovine mammary epithelial cells (bMECs) are capable of initiating an innate immune response to invading bacteria. Short chain fatty acids can reduce Staphylococcus aureus internalization into bMEC, but it has not been evaluated if octanoic acid (sodium octanoate, NaO), a medium chain fatty acid (MCFA), has similar effects. In this study we determined the effect of NaO on S. aureus internalization into bMEC and on the modulation of innate immune elements. NaO (0.25–2 mM) did not affect S. aureus growth and bMEC viability, but it differentially modulated bacterial internalization into bMEC, which was induced at 0.25–0.5 mM (~60%) but inhibited at 1-2 mM (~40%). Also, bMEC showed a basal expression of all the innate immune genes evaluated, which were induced by S. aureus. NaO induced BNBD4, LAP, and BNBD10 mRNA expression, but BNBD5 and TNF-α were inhibited. Additionally, the pretreatment of bMEC with NaO inhibited the mRNA expression induction generated by bacteria which coincides with the increase in internalization; only TAP and BNDB10 showed an increase in their expression; it coincides with the greatest effect on the reduction of bacterial internalization. In conclusion, NaO exerts a dual effect on S. aureus internalization in bMEC and modulates elements of innate immune response.

SummaryCellular phenotypes are dictated not by single signals but by the integration of multiple extracellular cues, a process that remains poorly understood. Here, we systematically dissect how combinations of Oncostatin M, Transforming Growth Factor β1, and Epidermal Growth Factor shape the behavior of MCF10A mammary epithelial cells. Live-cell imaging revealed that ligand combinations drive emergent phenotypes absent in single-ligand contexts, pointing to the induction of novel molecular programs. Transcriptomic profiling uncovered synergistically regulated genes, while partial least-squares regression linked these transcriptional signatures to quantitative imaging-derived phenotypes and validated them across independent datasets. Functional analysis revealed CXCR2 signaling, upregulated through CREB activation, as a key driver of enhanced cell motility under combinatorial ligand treatment. Together, these findings establish a framework for uncovering how extracellular signals converge to modulate gene expression and phenotype, providing new insight into the principles governing complex epithelial cell behaviors.

Mastitis is amajor inflammatory response of the mammary gland due to various pathogenic invasions and is a serious disease that affects the production yield and health status of cows. Astaxanthin (AST), a xanthophyll carotenoid, is a secondary metabolite synthesized by microalgaeand yeasts that has been reported to suppress various inflammatory responses. However, the protective effect of AST on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced mammary epithelial cells has not yet been reported. The present study results indicated that AST treatment markedly attenuated the oxidative stress markers and nitric oxide (NO) while improving the anti-oxidant enzymes in LPS exposed cells. On the other hand, LPS-exposed cells showed nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) with the activation of inflammatory cytokines such as monocyte chemoattractantprotein-1, tumor necrosis factor-α, interferon-γ, and interleukin-6 (IL-6). In addition, mRNA expression analysis revealed that the histone deacetylase (HDAC) -1, -2, -3, -6, -7 and pentraxin 3 (PTX3) expressions were increased in the LPS group. Furthermore, the activity of HDAC was increased to 2-fold with a significant reduction in the histone acetyltransferase activity in cells exposed to LPS. However, AST was able to inhibit the nuclear translocation of NF-κB with attenuated HDAC activity. Intriguingly, HDAC inhibition studies demonstrated that the cytokines such as IL-4, IL-8, granulocyte-mcrophage colony stimulating factor, C-reactive protein, IL-17A, and IL-22 were significantly suppressedwhichwere upregulated in LPS treatment; while AST was found acting byimproving the anti-inflammatory cytokineIL-10, and thioredoxin reductase levels. Collectively, these findings provide novel insights into the role of HDACs in regulating cellular processes involved in the pathogenesis of LPS-induced mastitis as well as the potential use of AST as a therapeutic in treatment for controlling disease progression.

Estrogen regulates proliferation and morphogenesis of mammary ductal epithelium by interacting with a specific intracellular estrogen receptor (ER) that acts as a hormone-dependent transcriptional regulator of gene expression. The mechanisms by which ER regulates transcription in response to estrogen have been analyzed extensively in tissue culture and in cell-free systems. These studies have demonstrated that the transcriptional activity of ER is strongly influenced by cellular context and highlight the need to address ER transcriptional activity in an appropriate cellular background. Thus, to gain insight into the mechanistic role of ER in mammary epithelial morphogenesis, we have used an adenoviral gene delivery strategy to introduce an estrogen-responsive reporter gene into the mammary epithelium and to monitor the activity of endogenous ERs in their natural environment where cellular context including stromal-epithelial interactions can be taken into account. Using this approach, we first demonstrated highly efficient adenoviral delivery throughout the mammary epithelium using a β-galactosidase (βgal) reporter gene under the control of the constitutively active cytomegalovirus (CMV) promoter. Next, we constructed an adenoviral vector by substituting the CMV promoter with an estrogen-dependent promoter fragment-linked βgal (Ad-ERE-tk-βgal). This adenoviral reporter system provides evidence that ER positive mammary epithelial cells display a differential sensitivity in a region-specific manner toward estrogen induction. Our data suggest that the availability of factor(s) other than ER is necessary for ER-mediated gene activation and may be important in modulating the differential responses of mammary epithelial cells to estrogen.

Intramammary Response to Modified Intramammary Devices1,2