Оценка функции спроса на театральные постановки: эмпирический анализ

This paper provides new evidence on income and price elasticities of demand and supply of agricultural exports from developing countries, on the basis of (a) a consistent and fully specified supply and demand model, and (b) statistical estimation procedures not frequently used in the estimation of agricultural export functions. Estimates of price and income elasticities of demand for aggregate agricultural exports for all developing countries taken together — as distinct from individual exporting countries — are found to be low; moreover, export price as distinguished from non‐price factors plays a relatively insignificant role in increasing export supply. Hence, an attempt by all developing countries to expand traditional agricultural exports with low price elasticity of demand may not yield rising earnings for all; but in fact may result in falling export revenues. Insofar as individual exports of all developing countries (not individual countries) are concerned, income and price elasticities of demand for such tropical commodities as tea, coffee, cocoa and bananas are also found to be low, except for new, non‐traditional exports like pineapples. This indicates the importance of diversification of agricultural exports as a vehicle for their future growth.

T HIS research provides an estimate of the demand for educational attainment across states within a framework of optimal community choice. The communi,ty is envisioned as having the ability to choose a level of educational attainment for its students which will maximize its net benefits subject to the prevailing technical relationship. The technical relationship specified in this paper considers separately the impact of school inputs, pupil inputs, and social characteristics on educational attainment. Most previous studies of the educational industry have failed to specify a structural model of educational attainment which simultaneously accounts for supply and demand factors. Those which have attempted to measure the effects of inputs on educational attainment have failed to standardize for demand conditions. Expenditure studies have either ignored supply conditions or have resulted in reduced form equations in which the structural parameters cannot be identified. McMahon (1970) estimated the relationship between expenditures and inputs using state data. His conceptual framework did not, however, permit the estimation of the price and income elasticities of demand.' Estimates of income elasticities have been made by Hirsch (1960), Brazer (1959), and Pryor (1968). Their estimates utilized a single equation expenditure function approach which failed to take account of variations in price and the simultaneous aspects of the determination of price and quantity. With the exception of a recent paper by Barlow (1970) estimates of price elasticities have not been published in studies of educational expenditures.2 While Barlow's demand function is similar in form to our own, his single equation estimation procedure ignored the effects of supply changes and thereby introduced the possibility of simultaneous equation bias. The approach utilized in this research is to take account explicitly of the simultaneous nature of demand and supply. Our conceptual framework permits the identification of both price and income elasticities as well as output elasticities for the inputs. Our price and income elasticities are statistically significant and consistent with theoretical expectations. We find that school inputs, pupil inputs, and community characteristics all have important impacts on educational attainment.

Despite the Chinese government's implementation of tax increases in 2009 and 2015 to curb tobacco use, the anticipated decline in cigarette sales has not materialized. This suggests a need for a deeper understanding of smokers' demand behavior. The present study aims to provide a more accurate estimation of the price and income elasticities of cigarettes in China. We utilized Deaton's model to analyze a comprehensive micro-level dataset comprising 10 892 households surveyed in the 2012 wave of the China Family Panel Survey, with the aim of estimating the price and income elasticities of cigarette demand, as well as to investigate how these elasticities vary across different income brackets. These resulting elasticities were subsequently integrated into the World Health Organization Tax Simulation Model to simulate the potential impacts of various tax increase scenarios on cigarette consumption and tax revenue. The price elasticity in China hovers around -0.72, with an income elasticity of about 0.23. Heterogeneity analysis indicated that lower-income smokers exhibit greater sensitivity to price changes. Policy simulations suggested that tax increases would substantially reduce consumption while concurrently increasing tax revenue. Chinese smokers exhibited a considerable sensitivity to cigarette prices, underscoring the efficacy of taxation as a policy instrument for shaping smoking behavior. As tax reforms continue and cigarette retail prices increase, there lies promising potential for achieving tobacco control goals, generating additional revenue, and improving social equality. A primary contribution of this study is the provision of a more reliable estimation of cigarette price and income elasticities in China. These parameters are crucial for assessing the potential impact of tobacco tax increases on cigarette consumption and government revenue. By leveraging a nationally representative survey from 2012 and employing Deaton's identification strategy, we significantly enhanced the data quality and methodological rigor of our analysis, leading to more accurate estimation results compared to previous studies.

This study used least squares regression techniques to estimate the demand for fresh choice beef in the U.S., 1950–1978. From the demand equation, estimates of price, income and cross elasticity of demand were derived. An objective was to determine if elasticity of demand has been decreasing. Problems with pooling of data, serial correlation and multicollinearity were dealt with. Estimated price elasticity of demand was found to be .62. When this figure was compared to results of other studies (with the consideration that different estimating techniques and time periods were used) it was judged that elasticity of demand for fresh choice beef in the U.S. probably had declined between 1950 and 1978.

The demand for coal among China's rural households: Estimates of price and income elasticities

The serious obstacles to improve water supply, has caused world debates, seeking some solutions to tackle the problem of shortages in water supply. t. Therefore, programs and policies have focused mainly on appropriate pricing approachof. Since the water industry in Iran has been monopolized by the government, an effective pricing approach is assumed to maximize the social welfare with consideration to the cost. . To consider the mentioned aspects to price water, this study used the Ramsey approach. Thy study estimated the Ramsey price of water used for the agricultural sector in Hamadan province of Iran.To determine the price, the Agricultural water demand function was estimated using time series data for the years 1370-88. Using the estimated demand function the price elasticity of demand was calculated. The water production function was also estimated using time series data for the years 1370-88.In order to estimate supply and demand functions, the ARDL model and Microfit econometric software were used. Using production function and demand function, the marginal cost and price elasticity were calculated. Applying the calculated ratios through MATLAB software, the Ramsey price of water for agriculture was measured. According to the results of this study, in the year 1388 the Ramsey price of water for agriculture was more than the paid price for industry.

Water pricing is an economic instrument traditionally used to reduce water demand. However, its effective implementation requires knowledge of the extent to which users reduce water consumption with increasing water prices. The price elasticity of water demand has been estimated using econometric regression, which relies on cross-sectional and time-series water data. As an alternative, we propose the use of agent-based modelling, which does not require reliable historical data on water prices and consumption and enables the simulation of multiple scenarios with different consumer profiles, behaviour profiles and water price changes, thereby allowing comprehensive understanding of price elasticity estimates. To illustrate the potential use of agent-based modelling for the estimation of water demand price elasticity, we performed an empirical application to a residential area in Chile. Price elasticity estimates ranged from −0.0159 to −0.1036 (mean −0.0250), indicating that residential water consumption is inelastic to price changes. This result is consistent with previous findings. Agent-based modelling is an alternative for the ex-ante assessment of the potential effectiveness of water pricing policies intended to reduce residential water demand.

"Price and income elasticities are key to understanding how changes in prices and income affect food demand. The U.S. Department of Agriculture's International Food Security Assessment and Baseline models rely on price and income elasticity estimates from previous studies (Seale et al., 2003; Muhammad et al., 2011). This study derives new elasticities using an Almost Ideal Demand System (AIDS) approach and relies on data from the 2017 International Comparison Program (ICP) of the World Bank. The ICP data, covering 176 economies, are categorized by geographic regions and income groups. Results indicate that consumers in low-income economies allocate a higher proportion of their income to necessities like food, while those in high-income economies spend more on luxury goods. Marginal shares demonstrate changes in food spending distribution across subcategories based on income levels. The study also identifies the price elasticity of various food items, distinguishing between relatively price inelastic (e.g., "bread and cereals," "oils and fats," "fruit," "vegetables," and "sugar, jam, honey, chocolate, and confectionery") and price elastic (e.g., "meat," "fish and seafood," and "nonalcoholic beverages") subcategories."

Demand analysis is a key element of economics. It has the attractive feature of being important in theory as well as in application. Its purpose is to explain consumer behavior in the market place, i.e., demand analysis is designed to explain what commodities the consumer will purchase and in what quantities and how the consumer can be expected to respond to changes in commodity prices and income. Since the parameters of demand functions can be extremely valuable for both public and private decision makers, it is important to obtain concise and accurate estimates of them. Public policy makers must have reliable estimates of demand parameters for the scientific study of economic growth and development and for the rational formulation of economic policies. Farm policies directed towards commodity programs like price supports, production controls, and payment programs for the major farm crops, would no doubt benefit from more accurate information in regard to market demand functions. Private business models for forecasting future markets, planning merchandising and advertising, and devising promotional programs can be improved with demand analysis. Traditionally, most of the estimates of demand parameters in empirical analysis were based on single equation least squares approach. Theoretically, however, the estimation of demand parameters calls for the complete set of demand functions to be considered as a whole. One of the major reasons for the relatively few studies devoted to the estimation of the full set of demand parameters is the existence of a gap between demand theory and empirical analysis, i.e., the classical theory of consumer behavior has not provided workable relationships for estimation purposes due to the fact that available data is insufficient for the estimation of a large number of the required parameters. Recent studies of the theory of consumer behavior have provided a number of empirically useful hypotheses concerning the separability of the consumers utility functions. These hypotheses imply certain empirically meaningful conditions on the parameters of demand functions. More specifically, these conditions reduce the number of parameters to be estimated in a complete system of demand functions and thus make estimation of all the parameters more feasible. In this study an attempt is made to examine consumer behavior in the United States for the period 1929-1969, by assuming an additive preference specification and by using a complete system of demand functions. Briefly, the plan of this study is as follows: a historical note on demand analysis is given below. In Chapter II a review of the classical theory of consumer demand is presented. The assumptions of additivity and separability are then introduced and examined in terms of their consequences for estimation. Chapter III provides a statistical model for obtaining estimates of demand parameters under the assumption of an additive preference specification. Chapters IV, V, and VI contain the main results of this study. In Chapter IV estimates of demand elasticities (price and income) for major commodity groups, e.g., food, clothing, etc. are reported. Chapter V contains estimates of price and income elasticities of demand for food and non-food commodity groups. The statistical information available is then used to obtain estimates of demand elasticities (price and income) for nine food groups. The empirical evidence which suggests that the demand for food at retail level is becoming more elastic is examined in Chapter VI. Concluding remarks are offered in Chapter VII.

The amount of hybrid chicken eggs production and consumption in Indonesia shows that the need of hybrid chicken eggs increases every year. Pamekasan is a district with the highest production for hybrid chicken eggs in Madura. This study aims to analyze the price elasticity of hybrid chicken eggs demand in Pamekasan and in Indonesia as well as to analyze the factors that dominate the elasticity. That is expected to become one of the bases for establishing policies in the livestock sub-sector, both on national and regional scale. The data being used in this study is the number of requests and prices for hybrid chicken eggs in Pamekasan and in Indonesia in 2016-2017 which were obtained from the East Java Provincial Animal Husbandry Department, Ministry of Agriculture, and the results of research by Ilham and Saptana in 2019 to obtain price elasticity. The price elasticity of demand of hybrid chicken eggs in Pamekasan was 20.68344657 which was elastic, while in Indonesia it was 0.795585317 which was inelastic. Based on the statistical analysis factor result, the factor that dominates the elasticity of the demand for hybrid chicken eggs in Pamekasan is the price of duck eggs with a correlation of 0.994.

The aim of this study is to provide an economic analysis of urban water use with a view to enhance the understanding of the factors influencing urban water demand and to estimate price elasticities of residential, commercial, and industrial water demands in Sri Lanka. Lack of research in the Sri Lanka context of this area and the need for understanding the price elasticity of demand for urban water for effective implementation of the new water-demand management policy formulated by the Government of Sri Lanka in early 2000 were important motivations for this study. Separate water-demand functions for each of the major sectors were estimated, using monthly time series for 60 months from January 1994 to December 1998. In general, the price is found to have a significant effect on water demand, and this effect is much higher for the industrial sector than for the residential and commercial sectors. In addition, real income, number of connections (population), and weather variables are found to be important determinants of urban water demand. Estimated price elasticities are -0.18, -0.17, and -1.34 for the residential, commercial, and industrial water demands, respectively. The study concludes that while the price will be an important tool in influencing demand, other measures such as public education and information/awareness will be necessary to achieve desired reductions in water consumption, especially in the less-responsive residential and commercial sectors.

The price and income elasticity of China's natural gas demand: A multi-sectoral perspective

The study utilized the extensive data collected on Food Demand and Markets Surveys, undertaken by International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in conjunction with Kaduna State Agricultural Development Programme (ADP) between 1999/2000. The objective of the study is to estimate the price and income elasticities of cereals food crops in the study area. The results of the price and income elasticities of demand suggest that urban households in general are responsive to changes in own price and income in adjusting their consumption patterns. It was shown that the price elasticites for maize, sorghum, millet and rice were -0.6, -0.4, -0.9 and -0.9 respectively, while the expenditure elasticities were 0.6, 0.4, 0.6 and 0.7 for maize, sorghum, millet and rice respectively. The estimates of cross price elasticities suggested that the substitution effects of price changes were not statistically significant for all the cereals. Keywords: Consumption Expenditure, price and cross-price elasticities Agrosearch Vol. 8 (1&2) 2006: pp. 59-66

In this study, the price and income elasticities of Turkey’s imported crude oil demand are analysed. For this purpose, annual time series data covering the period 1970-2018 are preferred for imported crude oil, real price for crude oil and real GDP. As known, Turkey is an energy dependent country especially in fossil fuels. Therefore, estimating Turkey’s crude oil demand equations is very significant to analyse the consumption trend and the future expectations in terms of this energy resource. This study employs Harvey’s Structural Time Series Modelling Method (STSM) with the underlying energy demand trend (UEDT) concept for determining the relations among income, price and crude oil import demand. The empirical results show that the income and price elasticities of crude oil demand in Turkey are 0.66 and -0.11, respectively. The estimated elasticities suggest that income and price elasticities for the imported crude oil demand are inelastic.

Two issues that have become increasingly important while estimating the parameters of aggregate demand functions to study firm behavior are the endogeneity of marketing activities (typically, price) and heterogeneity across consumers in the market under consideration. Ignoring these issues in the estimation of the demand function parameters can lead to biased and inconsistent estimates for the effects of marketing activities. Endogeneity and heterogeneity have achieved prominence in large measure because of the increasing popularity of logit models to characterize demand functions using aggregate data. The logit model accounts for purchase incidence and brand choice by including a “no-purchase” alternative in the consumer's choice set. This allows for category sales to change as a function of the marketing activities of brands in the category.There are three issues with using the logit model with the no-purchase option to characterize demand when studying competitive interactions among firms. (1) The marketing literature dealing with brand choice behavior at the consumer level has found that the IIA restriction is not appropriate, as each brand in the choice set is more similar to some brands than it is to others. (2) Studies have found that the purchase incidence decision is distinct from the brand choice decision. Hence, it may not be appropriate to model the no-purchase decision as just another alternative in the choice set with the IIA restriction holding across all brands and the no-purchase option. (3) Even if the distinction between the purchase incidence and brand choice decisions is accounted for via, for example, a nested logit specification, accounting for the purchase incidence decision with aggregate data requires assumptions for computing the share of the no-purchase alternative which is otherwise unobserved.In this paper, we propose a probit model as an alternative to the logit model to specify the aggregate demand functions of firms competing in oligopoly markets. The probit model avoids the IIA property that affects the logit model at the individual consumer level. Furthermore, the probit model can naturally account for the distinction between the purchase incidence and brand choice decisions due to the general covariance structure assumed for the utilities of the alternatives. We demonstrate how the parameters of the proposed model can be estimated using aggregate time series data from a product market. In the estimation, we account for the endogeneity of marketing variables as well as for heterogeneity across consumers.Our results indicate that both endogeneity as well as heterogeneity need to be accounted for even after allowing for a non-IIA specification at the individual consumer level. Specific to our data, we also find that ignoring endogeneity has a bigger impact on the estimated price elasticities than ignoring the effects of heterogeneity. A comparison of the elasticities obtained from the probit model with those from the corresponding logit specification indicates that the range of elasticities obtained from the probit model across brands is larger than that obtained from the logit. The results have implications for issues such as firm-level pricing.In addition to specifying a probit model and providing comparisons with the logit model, the paper also addresses the third issue raised above. We propose a simple alternative to the purchase incidence/brand choice specification by decomposing the demand for a brand into a category demand equation and a conditional brand choice share equation. We provide a comparison of results from this specification to those from the specification that includes the no-purchase alternative and find that estimated elasticities are sensitive to the specification used. We also estimate the demand function parameters using a traditional specification such as the double-logarithmic model. Here, we find that the estimated elasticities could be signed in such a manner as to be not useful for firm-level pricing decisions.One of the key limitations of the proposed model is that while it accounts for the purchase incidence and brand choice decisions of households, it does not account for differences across consumers in their purchase quantities. The model and analysis are best suited for product categories in which consumers typically make single-unit purchases. Another limitation is more practical in nature. While recent advances have been made in computing probit probabilities, it could nevertheless be a challenge to do so when the number of alternatives is large.