Митохондриальная филогения и систематика орлов Палеарктики

Agglomerative algorithms iteratively pick a pair of taxa, create a new node that represents the cluster of these taxa, and compute a new distance matrix with reduced size where both taxa are replaced by this node. The cycle is repeated until the number of taxa becomes three (or two for rooted trees). This general scheme was first applied to additive unrooted trees by Sattath and Tversky (ADDTREE method; 1977) in the context of mathematical psychology. The neighbor-joining (NJ) method of Saitou and Nei ( 1987) widely popularized this approach in the phylogenetic study. This method is based on the minimum evolution principle and provides trees with near-minimal sum of branch-length estimates. An alternative formulation of the NJ method with reduced computational complexity was given by Studier and Keppler (SK method; 1988), while Rzhetsky and Nei ( 1992, 1993) clarified the theoretical foundation of the minimum evolution principle. Several simulations (Saitou and Nei 1987; Nei 199 1) have shown a high relative efficiency of ADDTREE and of the NJ method in recovering the true topology. These studies have also shown that ADDTREE and the NJ method, whose principles seem very different, are in fact close and usually provide identical or similar trees. For example, they obtain the same tree with Case’s ( 1978) data. The explanation for this proximity was given by Saitou and Nei ( 1987) for four taxa. In this note, we account for this proximity regardless of the number of taxa, and we show that the minimum evolution principle, as employed in the NJ method, is very close to the neighborliness used by Sattath and Tversky ( 1977) and by Fitch ( 198 1) in a nonagglomerative way. In the following, we recall the principles of the ADDTREE, NJ, and SK methods and explain why they are so close. We will only be concerned with the construction of the tree shape, and not with branch-lengths estimation. For the latter aspect, we refer the reader to the original papers and to

Macrohectopus branickii is the only pelagic amphipod from Lake Baikal. Until now, despite the uniqueness of M. branickii, its genetic diversity at the intraspecific level, as well as its intraspecific morphological diversity, have not been studied. In this work, we present the result of a morphological analysis of intrapopulation variability of the species M. branickii from the northern basin of Lake Baikal, as well as the result of a molecular analysis based on the sequence of a fragment of the mitochondrial Nad5 gene of several individuals of this species from three basins of the lake. The material for the study was collected using a plankton net and trawl from all basins and shores of Lake Baikal at depths of 100-300 m. We measured 21 morphological characters according to the scheme previously proposed in Tikhonova’s work for sexually mature females of M. branickii living on different shores of the northern basin of Lake Baikal. The coefficient of variation of the values of all characteristics was determined. Morphological analysis revealed different degrees of variability in the studied characters for M. branickii. The most variable characters are: the length of 1 segment of the peduncle of the upper antennae; length of 4 and 5 segments of the stalk of the lower antennae; length of gnathopod propodites 2 pairs; width and length of basipodites of the third pair of pereiopods; length of the stalk, external and internal branches of the uropods of the third pair; telson width and length. Analysis of the nucleotide sequences of the Nad5 gene fragment showed their low variability. The haplotype network was reconstructed using the pegas package for the R programming language. M. branickii forms a single panmictic population, consistent with the absence of geographic and environmental barriers in the pelagic zone of the lake.

Background Invasive gibel carp, Carassius gibelio (Bloch, 1782) has become well-established in the Hungarian waters and now are spreading in the European waters. On major concern now is the potential hybridization between gibel carp and the other invasive species in the Carassius auratus complex (CAC), which may further accelerate the spread of the whole invasive species complex. The identification of gibel carp and their hybrids is difficult because of its morphological similarity to the other species in CAC. Here we carry out a genomic assessment to understand the history of gibel carp invasion and its phylogenetic relationship with the other species in CAC. Three loci of the mitochondrial genome (D-loop, CoI, Cytb) were used to determine the phylogenetic origin of individuals and relarionship among six gibel carp populations and the other species in the CAC. Methodolgy A total of 132 gibel carp samples from six locations in Southern Transdanubia (Hungary) were collected after phenotypic identification to measure the genetic diversity within and among gibel carp populations of Southern Transdanubia (Hungary). The genetic background was examined by the sequences of the mitochondrial genome: D-loop, Cytochrome c oxidase I (CoI) and Cytochrome b (Cytb). Mitochondrial genetic markers are excellent tools for phylogenetic studies because they are maternally inherited. Successfully identified haplotypes were aligned and with reference sequences in nucleotide databases (i.e., NCBI-BLAST: National Centre for Biotechnology Information and BOLD: Barcode of Life Data System). The phylogenetic relationships among gibel carp populations were then analyzed together with the reference sequences to understand the relationship and the level of hybridization with the species in CAC. Results Among the 132 aligned D-loop sequences 22 haplotypes were identified. Further examination of representative individuals of the 22 haplotypes, six Cytb and four CoI sequences were detected. The largest number of haplotypes of all three loci were found in Lake Balaton, the largest shallow lake in Central Europe. Based on the NCBI-BLAST alignment of the D-loop, haplotypes of Carassius auratus auratus and Carassius a. buergeri in CAC were identified in the C. gibelio samples. Further analysis of haplotypes with the other two mitochondrial markers confirmed the occurrence of intragenus hybridization of C. gibelio in the Hungarian waters. Conclusion By using three mitochondrial markers (D-loop, Cytb, CoI), we genomically characterized a gibel carp-complex in Hungarian waters and assessed the C. gibelio phylogenetic status between them. Hybrid origin of locally invasive Carassius taxon was detected in Hungary. It points out that invasive species are not only present in Hungary but reproduce with each other in the waters, further accelerating their spread.

Flower-dwelling predators make flowers dangerous foraging sites for pollinators, potentially affecting their anti-predator behaviour. Moreover, predation vulnerability often varies among pollinators' body sizes with interspecific comparisons showing that smaller species are more vulnerable than larger ones. However, how intraspecific body size variation influences pollinator behaviour under predation risk is still unknown, especially under natural conditions. We hypothesized that bumblebee workers of different sizes will exhibit different foraging strategies under predation risk. We predict that (a) small workers should more often exhibit anti-predator behaviours than larger workers. We also hypothesized that the anti-predator behaviour should be influenced by predator size and reward availability; therefore, we expect (b) higher avoidance behaviour towards larger predator sizes and (c) more and longer visits to inflorescences with high nectar availability. Finally, we expect that (d) nectar availability should overcome the anti-predator behaviour in less vulnerable, large, workers. We recorded flower visitation, time spent and rejection behaviours of different sizes of Bombus terrestris (Apidae) workers (large, medium and small) to inflorescences of Alstroemeria aurea (Alstroemeriaceae) with different treatments of artificial spiders (small and large) and nectar availability (with, without). Anti-predator and foraging behaviour of bumblebees was affected by the size of the worker, the presence of artificial spiders and nectar availability. Large and medium size bumblebees strongly reduced flower visitation and time spent in the presence of artificial spiders, consistently avoiding flowers with spiders, regardless of spider size or nectar availability. Instead, small bumblebees seldom modified their behaviour when facing artificial spiders, only increasing their avoidance or decreasing their foraging time in nectarless flowers hosting large artificial spiders. This pattern of larger workers being more sensitive to predation risk than smaller ones at the intraspecific level in B.terrestris is contrary to the expected and acknowledged trend based on previous interspecific comparisons, but partially consistent with predictions of models of optimal foraging theory. Intraspecific behavioural variability was uncovered only when nectar was available, whereas artificial predator size rarely modified bumblebee anti-predator and foraging behaviour. Therefore, our findings suggest that the trade-off between maximizing resource intake and minimizing predation risk strongly varies across bumblebee worker body sizes.

We investigated the relationship between basal metabolic rate and production rates (i.e., tissue biosynthesis) at the intraspecific level in Sigmodon hispidus from seven distinct geographic locations. Variation in metabolic and production rates did not correlate with a latitudinal or longitudinal gradient. No evidence was found that intraspecific variation in basal metabolic rate influences variation in production rates. Rates of basal metabolism were not correlated significantly with rates of energy investment in postnatal growth, reproduction, or rates of assimilation of energy at the intraspecific level. In general, allocation of energy to production was constant regardless of the basal metabolic rate of each individual. In contrast, allocation of energy to activities other than basal metabolism and production was lower in cotton rats with high basal rates. Differences in metabolic capacity and metabolic scope are suggested as an alternative explanation for simultaneous increases in basal metabolism and production rates documented at the interspecific level.

In this study we analysed for the first time the phylogenetic relationships among the European Lethrus species based on mitochondrial (COI, 16S) and nuclear (H3, wingless) markers. The phylogenetic inference based on these genes indicated that the European Lethrus species form a monophyletic group with two main lineages. One of them is distributed in the central part of the Balkan Peninsula (North Macedonia, northwestern Greece and southwestern Bulgaria) and includes five species ( L. perun , L. raymondi , L. strymonensis , L. halkidikiensis and L. elephas ). Three species of the other clade ( L. schaumii , L. ares and L. schneideri ) occur in the eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula (southeastern Bulgaria and northeastern Greece) while its fourth member, L. apterus , could colonize much larger areas in central and eastern Europe. Despite its large geographic distribution, L. apterus proved to be a single species. By contrast, we found strong intraspecific differentiation in both L. schaumii and L. halkidikiensis in spite of their restricted distribution. Surprisingly, two highly divergent mitogroups were also detected within a single L. schneideri population. As the microsatellite markers did not show any differentiation between them, this finding is likely to be accounted for by a unidirectional hybridization event. These findings highlight that phylogenetic studies or species descriptions should not be based on mitochondrial markers alone. Our study clearly demonstrates that allopatric speciation is the most important speciation mechanism in the European species of the genus Lethrus , although we also hypothesize that other well‐known factors, such as hybridization or the glacial‐interglacial dynamics, could significantly affect the speciation patterns of certain lineages.

Diplozoids are parasitic flatworms known for their unique development, whereby two hermaphroditic individuals fuse to form a single adult. They exhibit varying host specificity, with Paradiplozoon homoion having the widest known distribution, making it a suitable model for population genetic studies. In this study, the genetic variability of P. homoion was assessed from 60 cyprinoid fish species at 47 sites in the western Palaearctic using the mitochondrial COI gene. Moreover, novel sequence data of four ribosomal and one mitochondrial marker were used to understand phylogenetic relationships among diplozoids. A total of 29 unique COI haplotypes in six divergent haplogroups among P. homoion populations were identified. The COI fragment showed ≤8.8% intraspecific variability. The Caspian Sea Basin and Anatolio-Mediterranean region had the highest haplotype diversity, while the Danube Basin and western Europe populations had similar haplotypes. Phylogenetic analysis showed congruence between mitochondrial and ribosomal markers, except for Paradiplozoon koubkovae from Iran. The high intraspecific variability highlights the rapid mutation rate in mitochondrial DNA, important for future taxonomic studies. The spatial distribution of mitochondrial DNA haplotypes showed partial geographical structure, suggesting an east-to-west dispersal route for P. homoion into Europe. The presence of different haplotypes within a single individual suggests intraspecific hybridization.

Genetic studies on the populations of Austropotamobius pallipes complex from Alessandria province (N-Italy), conducted on the basis of variations recorded in the sequences of mitochondrial DNA in the gene 16S RNA, have allowed to single out an overlapping zone of the distribution areas of the two taxa pallipes and italicus. In the crayfishes from a creek where both species have been ascertained to be present, the authors have applied the same molecular marker in order to investigate the distribution of the two taxa, stressing the syntopy of A. pallipes and A. italicus. Multivariate statistical techniques on 21 morphological parameters have been used in order to single out possible distinctive features of 31 crayfishes collected in this site, and of 225 crayfishes obtained from four sites in neighbouring areas. The results confirm the presence of a high morphological variability, not only at interspecific, but also at intraspecific level, which does not allow to distinguish the two species on the basis of the features measured in the present study.

Squirrels have been traded in the pet market for several decades, and numerous species have established in the wild. The Asiatic species Callosciurus erythraeus and Callosciurus finlaysonii have been introduced into other parts of Asia, in Europe and South America. In this study, (1) we conducted a genetic characterization of C. erythraeus introduced into Argentina and compared them with native and introduced populations in Asia, and (2) we analyzed genetic variation among the four invasion foci in Argentina in order to corroborate that the pathway of invasion was a single introduction event in the country and subsequent translocations. We analyzed mitochondrial (cytochrome b, Cyt b; cytochrome oxidase c subunit I, COI and D-loop) and nuclear (recombination activating gene I, RAGI) DNA markers using the classical method (DNA barcoding gap analysis) and also the Automatic Barcode Gap Discovery method (ABGD). The markers D-loop, COI, and RAG1 indicated that the introduced squirrels from the different invasion foci formed a monophyletic group that, together with only one haplotype for the D-loop and COI markers, supported the hypothesis of one introduction event into Argentina followed by subsequent translocations. Unexpectedly, sequences from squirrels captured in Argentina were more related to C. finlaysonii than to C. erythraeus for D-loop and Cyt b markers. However, intraspecific variation among sequences of C. erythraeus belonging to different subspecies or collected in different regions was large and comparable with the distance to the sequences from Argentina. The ABGD method also indicated large genetic variability within C. erythraeus and close proximity between squirrels from Argentina and C. finlaysonii. The complex taxonomy of Callosciurus, as occurs with the sister species C. erythraeus and C. finlaysonii, requires a thorough systematic revision. A simultaneous analysis of diagnostic morphological characters and genetic markers is needed and will provide new insight regarding the worldwide invasion of Asiatic squirrels.

Phylogeography and population genetic studies in the Porifera have been limited by the lack of available polymorphic DNA markers. In this paper, we tested four new mitochondrial markers in nine demosponge species from a wide taxonomic range: partial sequences of the ATP synthase 6 (ATP6) and the cytochrome oxidase 2 (CO2) genes and two spacers: one located between ATP6 and CO2 and the other between the NADH dehydrogenase subunit 5 (ND5) and the small subunit ribosomal RNA (rns) genes. The new markers presented levels of nucleotide diversity up to 2.4 times higher (π = 0.015 for CO2) than those observed for the most commonly used mitochondrial marker in sponges, the cytochrome oxidase 1 gene (π = 0.006), making them suitable for alpha-level systematics, phylogeography and population genetics studies.

The functional relationship between thermotolerance and heat shock protein (HSP) expression is well described. However, the intraspecific variation in HSP70 expression and heat resistance is not fully understood. Some studies have shown a correlation between thermotolerance and HSP70 expression levels at the intraspecific level, whereas others have not, and results depend on species, developmental stage and environment. The present study extends such correlative studies to species from soil ecosystems, where we have characterized the variation in thermotolerance and HSP70 expression in 18 inbred isofemale lines of the springtail Orchesella cincta. The results show ample genetic variation among lines in heat shock resistance as well as in HSP70 protein levels and hsp70 mRNA expression. However, we did not detect any significant positive correlations between HSP70 expression and thermotolerance. These results indicate that the variation in HSP70 expression and heat resistance at the intraspecific level is dependent on species and/or ecosystem and further studies are needed to clarify this relationship. © Inter-Research 2010.

Allometry studies the change in scale between two dimensions of an organism. The metabolic theory of ecology predicts invariant allometric scaling exponents, while empirical studies evidenced inter- and intra-specific variations. This work aimed at identifying the sources of variations of the allometric exponents at both inter- and intra-specific levels using stem analysis from 9,363 trees for ten Eastern Canada species with a large shade-tolerance gradient. Specifically, the yearly allometric exponents, α(v,DBH) [volume (v) and diameter at breast height (DBH)], β(v,h) [v and height (h)], and γ(h,DBH) (h and DBH) were modelled as a function of tree age for each species. α(v,DBH), and γ(h,DBH) increased with tree age and then reached a plateau ranging from 2.45 to 3.12 for α(v,DBH), and 0.874-1.48 for γ(h,DBH). Pine species presented a local maximum. No effect of tree age on β(v,h) was found for conifers, while it increased until a plateau ranging from 3.71 to 5.16 for broadleaves. The influence of shade tolerance on the growth trajectories was then explored. In the juvenile stage, α(v,DBH), and γ(h,DBH) increased with shade tolerance while β(v,h) was shade-tolerance independent. In the mature stage, β(v,h) increased with shade tolerance, whereas γ(h,DBH) decreased and α(v,DBH) was shade-tolerance independent. The interaction between development stage and shade tolerance for allometric exponents demonstrates the importance of the changing functional requirements of trees for resource allocation at both the inter- and intra-specific level. These results indicate the need to also integrate specific functional traits, growth strategies and allocation, in allometric theoretical frameworks.

Stomata are mediators of gas exchange and thus important for photosynthesis and plant performance. The aim of this study was to analyze the ecological explanatory power of the stomatal pore area index (SPI) calculated via stomatal size and density. We studied the SPI on sun leaves of 22 herbaceous species on 22 study sites being distributed along two elevational gradients in the northern Alps ranging from 700 to 1800 m a.s.l.. We analyzed its correlation with other functional traits related to plant performance namely specific leaf area (SLA), area-based leaf nitrogen and carbon (N area and C area, respectively) as well as carbon discrimination Δ13C within as well as between species. On a subset of four species we also measured light-saturated net photosynthetic rate at ambient CO2 concentration (A sat) and stomatal conductance on all sites. We found that SPI was positively correlated with A sat, yet the relation was weaker than expected. The reaction of SPI along the elevational gradients was highly species-specific and related to variations in other investigated leaf traits. The relationship with functional traits, however, differed between the inter- and intraspecific level in strength and direction. SPI was positively related to N area and C area and negatively with SLA and Δ13C for most species. However, we found no significant relation considering species mean values for Δ13C and N area. The relation of SPI to SLA was the most consistent displaying no difference when comparing the relation between and within species. This research shows that different processes may act on different organizational levels leading to the detected differences in trait–trait correlations on the inter- and intraspecific levels. It may have important consequences also for macroecological and modelling studies.

A degree of host specificity, manifested by the processes of host–parasite cospeciations and host switches, is assumed to be a major determinant of parasites’ evolution. To understand these patterns and formulate appropriate ecological hypotheses, we need better insight into the coevolutionary processes at the intraspecific level, including the maintenance of genetic diversity and population structure of parasites and their hosts. Here, we address these questions by analyzing large‐scale molecular data on the louse Polyplax serrata and its hosts, mice of the genus Apodemus, across a broad range of European localities. Using mitochondrial DNA sequences and microsatellite data, we demonstrate the general genetic correspondence of the Apodemus/Polyplax system to the scenario of the postglacial recolonization of Europe, but we also show several striking discrepancies. Among the most interesting are the evolution of different degrees of host specificity in closely related louse lineages in sympatry, or decoupled population structures of the host and parasites in central Europe. We also find strong support for the prediction that parasites with narrower host specificity possess a lower level of genetic diversity and a deeper pattern of interpopulation structure as a result of limited dispersal and smaller effective population size.

A phylogeographic study of the Japanese earthworm, Metaphire sieboldi (Horst, 1883) (Oligochaeta: Megascolecidae): Inferences from mitochondrial DNA sequences