流行語としての"まったり"の客観化 : 首都圏におけるアンケート調査

There have been almost no studies on the changes in population and industries or functional changes in economies within the metropolitan areas throughout Japan because of the absence of statistical data based on metropolitan areas. The purpose of this paper, reviewing the above point, is to find the changes in population and industries in the 1960s, and to try to clarify metropolitan dynamics, factors for the dynamics and its mechanism. Criteria for a central city in a metropolitan area and the integration of peripheral areas to a central city are as follows : Central city: a legal city (shi) having 300, 000 inhabitants or more; daytime popu-lation surpassing residential population (1965 census year). Inner zone: shi, town (machi) and village (mura) in which 10 percent or more of the workers living there work in the central city throughout the 1960, 1965 and 1970 census years. Outer zone: shi, machi and mura in which 10 percent or more of the workers living there work in the central city only in the 1970 census year, in other words, peripheral areas integrated recently to the central city. The term a metropolitan peripheral area or a metropolitan suburb mean a total area of both inner zone and outer zone. According to the above criteria, the author delimited 18 metropolitan areas. Among the 18 metropolitan areas, anazawa M. A. and Wakayama M. A. had no outer zone. Objects of analysis are residential population, total employed persons, agriculture, manufacturing, wholesale and retail trade, finance, insurance and real estate, and services. Methods of analysis are (1) location quotient and (2) chaning patterns based on propor-tional changes (chiefly 1960_??_1970) of central cities, inner zones and outer zones to the total population of metropolitan areas and the number of employed persons (at place of work) of each industry. As a preliminary step to the analysis, a hypothetical trend in spatial patterns of population change within a metropolitan area is summurized in Fig. 1. The formula of location quotient (L. Q.) is: _??_ Where Oi is the number of employed persons in industry i in a given area, Op is the number of inhabitants in a given area, Ni is the total number of employed persons in industry i in Japan, and Np is the number of population in Japan. The following general trends became clear after analyzing L. Q. of central cities, inner zones and outer zones for metropolitan areas. 1) Central cities have strengthened the character of place of work, whereas peripheral areas has the character of residence (Table 2) . 2) L. Q. of agriculture in central cities and peripheral areas shows a consistent decrease as the sizes of the central cities become larger (Table 3) . 3) L. Q, of manufacturing in metropolitan areas becomes lower in the order of central city, inner zone and outer zone; and the intrametropolitan equa-lization of manufacturing specialization proceeds with lowering L. Q. for central cities and increasing L. Q. for peripheral areas (Table 4) . 4) In the case of wholesale and retail trades, differences in L. Q. between central cities and peripheral areas are charac-terized by gain in the former's L. Q. and loss in the latter's L. Q. (Table 5). 5) Differ-ences in L. Q. of finance, insurance and real estate between central cities and peripheral areas show the maximum amount among all indices. Despite the fact that the central cities have generally decreased in L. Q. numerically, the substantial function of each central city seems to have declined if a rapid increase in the employed persons within the periph-eral areas of the three super metropolitan areas (Tokyo M. A., Osaka M. A, and Nagoya M. A.) is taken into account (Table 6). 6) Differences in L. Q. for services between central cities and peripheral areas are generally of minimum among all indices (Table 7).

Further increases in rural suicide in young Australian adults: Secular trends, 1979–2003

: Since airports in metropolitan areas complement and interact with each other, they must be planned and operated as part of a system of airports. Furthermore, as air traffic continues to increase, more airports in metropolitan areas approach and reach capacity operation. Therefore, it is desirable to plan each airport in a metropolitan area as part of a system of airports in order to obtain the most efficient traffic flow, as well as the most efficient use of facilities. The operational factors involved in planning a system of airports in metropolitan areas are analyzed and used to determine the causes of congestion. Data obtained from previous studies is used to understand and demonstrate the operational factors and congestion. Airport congestion is defined in quantitative form for an individual airport and a system of airports. A methodology is presented that permits the many factors affecting the operation of an airport in a metropolitan system area to be evaluated quantitatively. The annual demand at which these airports will reach their practical annual capacity is determined by considering the effects of airport interactions and by determining quantitatively when congestion will occur at one airport and in the airport system. (Author)

Spatial heterogeneity of the association between temperature and hand, foot, and mouth disease risk in metropolitan and other areas

BACKGROUND AND AIM: The complex role of urbanisation in heat-mortality risk has not been fully studied. Korea and Japan have experienced a rapid population densification in metropolitan areas and the resultant disparities between metropolitan and non-metropolitan areas have intensified. We investigated the multi-dimensional effects urbanization on heat-mortality risk using nationwide data. METHODS: We collected time-series data for mortality and weather variables for all 229 districts in Korea (2011-2017) and 47 prefectures in Japan (1980–2015). We used a distributed lag nonlinear model to calculate the heat-mortality risk. Population density and population size were used as indicators of urbanization level. We also examined neighborhood characteristics that can be related to the spatial heterogeneity in heat-mortality risk. RESULTS:In Korea, we found a U-shaped association between population density and heat-mortality risk with the highest risk for rural populations; in urban areas, risk increases with increasing population density. Higher heat-mortality risk was associated with a lower number of hospital beds per person and higher % people requiring recuperation. In Japan, population growth has intensified in the metropolitan areas since the 2000s, and the highest heat-mortality risk was observed in the metropolitan areas at the same period. Higher apartment % and lower forest area and medical services were associated with higher heat-mortality risk in Japan. CONCLUSIONS:Our findings indicate that the association between urbanization and heat-mortality risk is different in Korea and Japan; however, in both countries, people living in metropolitan areas showed higher vulnerability to heat than people living in non-metropolitan urban areas, and the limited accessibility to medical services was associated with the higher heat risk in metropolitan areas. KEYWORDS: Urbanization, Urban-Rural Disparity, Heat-Mortality Risk, Urban Development, Heat Action Policies

The use and costs of mental health services by rural and remote Australian women are poorly understood. To examine the use of the Better Access Scheme (BAS) mental health services across geographical areas. Observational epidemiology cohort study using a nationally representative sample of 14 247 women from the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health born 1973-1978, linked to the Medical Benefits Schedule dataset for use of BAS services from 2006 to 2015. The number and cost of BAS services were compared across metropolitan and regional/remote areas for women using the mental health services. 31% of women accessed a BAS mental health service, 12% in rural populations. Overall, 90% of women with estimated high service need had contact with professional services (83% rural vs 92% metropolitan regions). Mean mental health scores were lower for women accessing a BAS service in remote areas compared with metropolitan, inner and outer regional areas (61.9 vs 65.7 vs 64.8 vs 64.2, respectively). Higher proportion of women in remote areas who were smokers, low/risky drinkers and underweight were more likely to seek treatment. Compared with metropolitan areas, women in inner, outer regional and remote areas accessed a lower mean number of services in the first year of diagnosis (6.0 vs 5.0 vs 4.1 vs 4.2, respectively). Actual mean overall annual costs of services in the first year of diagnosis were higher for women in metropolitan areas compared with inner, outer regional or remote areas ($733.56 vs $542.17 vs $444.00 vs $459.85, respectively). Women in rural/remote areas not accessing services need to be identified, especially among those with the highest levels of distress. In remote areas, women had greater needs when accessing services, although a substantial proportion of women who sought help through the BAS services lived in metropolitan areas. Regardless of lower cost to services in rural/remote areas, geographic and economic barriers may still be major obstacles to accessing services.

It is important for the study of an urban system to clarify the functional characteristics of each city as an element of the urban system and to analyse the interrelations among the cities. However, the studies of the latter have not been undertaken till now because of difficulties in data collection. Fortunately, migration data for each city during the one year after October 1979 were published in Vol. 6 of the 1980 Population Census of Japan. Using this the writer atempts to make clear the characteristics of interrelations in the Japanese urban system. The results are summarized as follows:1. The Japanese urban system presents a typical hierarchical structure as seen in Christaller's model. Differing from Pred's model of innovation diffusion, the migration flows between cities of the same order or between larger and smaller cities, independent of tributary areas, are large on neither volume nor proportion. As shown in Fig. 3, Osaka follows Tokyo, the national centre. Then come Sapporo, Fukuoka, Sendai and Hiroshima, regional urban centres. Viewed functionally and structurally, Nagoya also is included in this group. Following it appear central cities, mostly consisting of prefectural centres, that get nodal flows of over 10 percent from some cities of smaller scale within their own prefecture. Yokohama, Kyoto and Kobe, in the Tokyo and Osaka metropolitan areas respectively, are considered as satellite centres; they do not attain the level of functional allotments in each metropolitan area.2. As seen in Fig. 1, the metropolitan dominance of Tokyo has expanded remarkably. Not only Ibaragi, Tochigi and Gumma prefectures in the northern Kanto district, but also Fukushima in Tohoku, and Yamanashi and Nagano in the Chubu district are included in its area. It seems that in these prefectures the prefectural centres, occasionally in conjunction with the second largest cities, had once formed their own local urban systems.3. By the analysis of social increase of the urban population and the net migration ratio of nodal flows for each city, three types of cities are recognized (B, C and D types as shown in Fig. 4). Most of the smaller cities with less than 100, 000 inhabitants show a social decrease and net out-migration to central cities so that they continue to decline as before. Although the return migrations to native town or to neighbouring larger cities has normally been recognized since Japan's high economic growth period (about 1960 to 1973), these phenomena account for only a part of out-migrants. On the other hand, central cities and regional urban centres show social increase in spite of the net out-migration of nodal flows to metropolitan centres. Accordingly, we can see that such central cities and regional urban centres play a role in absorbing the population from surrounding areas and losing their own population to metropolitan centres. Within the metropolitan areas, satellite towns continue to increase in population, not only from natural increase of their own population but also from the net in-migration from the metropolitan centres. Therefore, as long as such migration flows continue, the hierarchical structure of the national urban system will continue to be developed and at the same time the regional disparity between metropolitan and non-metropolitan areas will continue to expand in contrast with Western countries.4. The metropolitan areas such as Tokyo, Osaka and Nagoya continue to dominate a hierarchical structure. Intermetropolitan migration between them has not been developed until now. Because of the dominance of nodal flows, the second or third largest flows, such as the inter-metropolitan migration between Osaka and Nagoya, are not so great in volume. Without structural changes in the urban system, we cannot say that the Tokaido Megalopolis is completely formed.

Background: Comparisons of greenspace between metropolitan areas generally reflect regional differences in soil characteristics and climatic zone, while greenspace differences within a metropolitan area at the postal code level avoid these regional differences. We examined local differences and trends in greenspace as determinants of local differences and trends in cardiovascular health.Methods: We calculated annual age-adjusted cardiovascular hospital admission rates (admissions per 100,000 person-years at risk, CHR) among Medicare beneficiaries aged 65 years and older for 2002-2013 across 10,097 ZIP codes (postal codes) in 123 major metropolitan core-based statistical areas (CBSA). We obtained monthly normalized difference vegetative index (NDVI) from the Terra satellite (1km grid) mapped to metropolitan ZIP code, determined the month with maximum NDVI for each metropolitan area, and finally assigned maximum-month values of NDVI for each ZIP code and year. Finally, we modeled the associations scaled to the interquartile range (IQR) both for centered means and for 12-year trends in CHR and NDVI, adjusting for CBSA and for levels and trends in adjusted gross income, proportion White and population density.Results: Across 123 major US metropolitan areas for 2002-2013, CHR had a mean of 5,903 admissions per 100,000 person-years at risk and a trend of -122 per year. An IQR increment of 0.121 in the mean NDVI was associated with a 52.4 lower CHR (95% CI 20.4, 84.3), while an IQR increment of 0.018 in the annual trend in NDVI was associated with a 6.4 per year greater decrease in CHR (95% CI 4.5, 8.3).Conclusion: Thus, after adjustment for metropolitan area characteristics and for cardiovascular risk factors, we have shown that local improvements in greenspace (NDVI) lead to local improvements in cardiovascular health among Medicare beneficiaries.This abstract does not necessarily represent the views or policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

Locating American Manufacturing: Trends in the Geography of Production

Disaster resilience in Australia: A geographic assessment using an index of coping and adaptive capacity

The study tested hypotheses that from 1964 to 1993: (1) suicide rates among Australian 15- to 24-year-old males rose more sharply in rural than metropolitan areas; (2) firearm suicide rates among 15- to 24-year-old males, declining throughout Australia recently, rose continuously in rural areas; (3) suicide rates among 15- to 24-year-old females did not change significantly in either metropolitan or rural areas. Suicides of those aged 10-24 years recorded by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) were classified according to the subject's residential grouping. Rates were calculated using ABS population data corresponding to these groupings. Results were analysed using log-linear analysis and chi-square statistics. The results supported the first two hypotheses, but not the third. Suicide rates for 15- to 24-year-old males rose by a factor of 2.2 in metropolitan areas, by 4-fold in towns with populations between 4,000 and 25,000, and by 12-fold in towns with populations less than 4,000. Male firearm suicide rates continued to rise in rural areas, and the greatest proportion of deaths in those locations were by firearms, though male hanging rates increased most in recent years in all locations. Female youth suicide rates did not change overall, but in towns with populations less than 4,000, they increased 4.5-fold. Possible explanations for this epidemic, which are mostly speculative and require confirmation, are discussed.

To compare the prevalence of mental health disorders and the use of professional help by area of residence, age and sex; and to determine whether the differences parallel differences in suicide rates. Retrospective cross-sectional analysis of Australian national mortality data (1997-2000) and the National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing (1997), using broad area-of-residence classifications based on the Rural, Remote and Metropolitan Area (RRMA) index. (a) Suicide rates; (b) prevalence of depression, anxiety and substance-use disorders; and (c) use of health professionals for mental health problems - by age, sex and area of residence. Higher suicide rates were evident for men, particularly young men in rural (40.4 per 100 000; z, 3.2) and remote (51.7 per 100 000; z, 7.2) populations compared with metropolitan (31.8 per 100 000) populations. Although the proportion of young men reporting mental health disorders did not differ significantly between rural (23.5%; z, -0.5) and remote (18.8%; z, -1.6) areas compared with metropolitan (25.6%) areas, young men with a mental health disorder from non-metropolitan areas were significantly less likely than those from metropolitan areas to seek professional help for a mental health disorder (11.4% v 25.2%; z, -2.2). There is a need to investigate why young men in non-metropolitan areas, the population with the greatest suicide risk, do and do not engage with mental health services.

Despite the well-established health benefits of regular participation in physical activity, most adults do not meet recommended exercise guidelines. In rural communities, limited local resources and geographic dispersion make engaging in regular activity particularly difficult. Web-based solutions offer a potential solution for addressing physical activity disparities between rural and urban areas. This study examined the physical activity logs of users (n = 6695) of a web-based platform called Walk Georgia, comparing residents of metropolitan and nonmetropolitan areas. We tabulated descriptive statistics for variables of interest, cross-tabulated for metropolitan and nonmetropolitan groups. We then used independent-samples t tests to compare logged activity between metropolitan and nonmetropolitan residing user groups. In the analysis of group type (n = 6654), users were more likely to enroll in the program as part of a group than as individuals (n = 4391; 65.9%), particularly for users in metropolitan areas (3558 of 5192; 68.5%). Although the groups shared certain activities, nonmetropolitan residents were more likely than metropolitan residents to engage in maintenance-based activities. Nonmetropolitan residents earned fewer program points for their activity than metropolitan users (P = .007), largely because of lower average exercise difficulty (P < .001). The web-based platform was effective in helping individuals track physical activity. Despite engaging in similar amounts of physical activity by time, on average, users in nonmetropolitan areas engaged in less rigorous and more maintenance-based tasks than users in metropolitan areas. One strategy for increasing physical activity among rural populations may be to leverage social support provided by group enrollment in such programming.

State minimum wage laws and newly diagnosed cases of HIV among heterosexual black residents of US metropolitan areas

To assess trends and rural-urban disparities in palliative care utilization among patients with metastatic breast cancer. We analyzed data from the 2004-2019 National Cancer Database. Palliative care services, including surgery, radiotherapy, systemic therapy, and/or other pain management, were provided to control pain or alleviate symptoms; utilization was dichotomized as "yes/no." Rural-urban residence, defined by the US Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service's Rural-Urban Continuum Codes, was categorized as "rural/urban/metropolitan." Multivariable logistic regression was used to examine rural-urban differences in palliative care use. Adjusted odds ratios (AORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated. Of 133,500 patients (mean age 62.4 [SD=14.2] years), 86.7%, 11.7%, and 1.6% resided in metropolitan, urban, and rural areas, respectively; 72.5% were White, 17.0% Black, 5.8% Hispanic, and 2.7% Asian. Overall, 20.3% used palliative care, with a significant increase from 15.6% in 2004-2005 to 24.5% in 2008-2019 (7.0% increase per year; p-value for trend <0.001). In urban areas, 23.3% received palliative care, compared to 21.0% in rural and 19.9% in metropolitan areas (p<0.001). After covariate adjustment, patients residing in rural (AOR=0.84; 95% CI: 0.73-0.98) or metropolitan (AOR=0.85, 95% CI: 0.80-0.89) areas had lower odds of having used palliative care than those in urban areas. In this national, racially diverse sample of patients with metastatic breast cancer, the utilization of palliative care services increased over time, though remained suboptimal. Further, our findings highlight rural-urban disparities in palliative care use and suggest the potential need to promote these services while addressing geographic access inequities for this patient population.