認知機制: 中文『銀』字及其譬喻用法

In my article, I present the person metaphor as the constitutive term for the theory of artificial persons. We have been dealing with various manners of reading the nature of the legal person, and consequently of law in general, especially private law (Privatrecht), since Roman times to this day. The point of departure for my deliberations, in which I try to demonstrate the nature of metaphorical expressions used in building legal theories, is a statement by Paul Kirchhof, who demanded that metaphorical expressions be eradicated from positive (statutory) law. In my article, I ask whether the demand can also be applied to theoretical deliberations of lawyers on the nature of law. Based on examples from legal discussions on the nature of the legal person, I formulate the claim that Paul Kirchhof’s demand should be applied only to positive law texts. Metaphorical expressions have no raison d’etre in such texts, especially if they are meant to serve as terms. A different situation occurs where a metaphorical expression is the basis for building a legal system and relations among its components. At this phase of developing law, metaphorical expressions give rise to similarities on which its functions depend. Therefore, at the stage of structuring the meanings of legal terms, corresponding to the vagueness of the metaphor are the important processes of defining and then using legal terms.

Translation is a frequently misunderstood process. Monolingual readers tend to believe that the literary translation they are reading offers a transparent reproduction of the meaning, style and effects of the original. However, those of us who are translators know that this is not so. This thesis highlights the agency of the translator, showing how different translation strategies colour the readers’ reception of the work, creating remarkably different impressions. I take up the case of Japanese-English literary translation and focus on the translation of metaphor, since metaphor is a key literary device and its translation poses particular challenges – including the need to switch between different cultural, conceptual and linguistic frames of reference. Research into metaphor translation strategies has only a short history and focuses mainly on European languages. The much larger linguistic and cultural divide between Japanese and English may require a different mix of strategies to effectively convey the author’s style and imagery. Through a comparative evaluation of the strategies adopted by translators in multiple translations of two well-known short stories: Tanizaki Jun’ichirō’s 刺青 (“Shisei”) and Akutagawa Ryūnosuke’s 羅生門 (“Rashōmon”), I explore the effectiveness of a range of strategies for translating metaphorical expressions. I show that in many cases, domesticating strategies are adopted by translators, such as replacing the source language metaphor with a target language metaphor of a similar sense; paraphrasing by removing the metaphor and translating only its sense; replacing a metaphor with a simile; or deleting the expression altogether. However, although the resulting translation may be smooth and readable, such strategies frequently soften the emotive force of the metaphorical expressions. I argue that the most successful approaches are those that recreate the effect of the original metaphor, often by using more foreignizing strategies that retain the Japanese imagery. My case studies also highlight the need for translators to decipher the intratextual and intertextual network of metaphors and attempt to maintain these sub-texts in their translation. This demonstrates the importance of interpretation in literary translation. I then use the insights gained from these case studies, including the importance of analysing the effect of metaphor and its communicative function in the context of the text as a whole, to develop an optimal translation approach. I apply this approach to the translation of two chapters from a contemporary Japanese novel (容疑者の夜行列車; Yōgisha no Yakōressha by Tawada Yōko to illustrate its potential. My overall conclusions are that the interpretive process requires an in-depth reading and analysis of the source text. This is necessary in order to determine the functions and effects of metaphorical expressions and prioritise those which should be retained. Translation strategies for each source text metaphor should be sensitive to the category of metaphor, its novelty, conceptual basis and cultural connotations. The translation strategy best able to recreate the most important effects should be adopted. This requires the translator to be flexible and willing to make use of compensatory strategies where necessary. Above all, the translator needs to exercise creativity to explore the target language possibilities, formulate innovative solutions and resist the easy option of domestication. To use a metaphor, the translator should be a traveller – crossing from one textual landscape to another and exploring the linguistic opportunities that would enable the effects of the original to be experienced in a new environment.

Animal metaphors are prevalent across languages and convey a variety of, oftentimes negative, meanings – more so for women than men. In English, for example, both lion and lioness refer to a sexually active, dominant man or woman respectively, but while the former is endowed with positive connotations (courage, strength), the latter evokes negative associations (danger, voracity). There are some animal terms, however, that do not feature in animal metaphors in a certain language, posing the question as to which associations are evoked by those animal terms that are not part of conventional animal metaphors. This paper explores Spanish speakers’ interpretations of mappings of the woman is an animal metaphor that are documented to exist in English but not in Spanish. This was tested with two online questionnaires, one employing open questions and the other one Likert scales presenting possible traits (e. g. quarrelsome, kind, promiscuous), in which Spanish speakers had to judge the animal metaphors which were translated from English. The results show that the novel animal metaphors are mainly associated by Spanish native speakers with negative features, first and foremost with ugliness. Additionally, most of the animal terms convey different meanings in English and Spanish. For example, musaraña, the Spanish equivalent of shrew, is not associated with bad temper and quarrelling, but instead with ugliness and muddleheadedness. Furthermore, the findings reveal significant insecurities in the interpretation of the translated metaphors by the Spanish speakers. These results might be an indication for both the arbitrariness and the stableness of associations with different animal species, depending on the speakers’ culture. It also seems that novel animal metaphors mainly provide mental access to unattractiveness as it is a concrete physical feature and might therefore be more accessible than abstract personality traits such as kindness or quarrelsomeness.

Emotion words are widely discussed both linguistically and extralinguistically. To understand more about the nature of emotion and how people categorize the emotions, the present paper investigates English emotion words by focusing on fear related words and expressions. Data are drawn from English dictionaries and analyzed in terms of cognitive linguistics. This study asks two research questions: (1) why fear is more basic than others and what are possible subordinates of them in English dictionaries? (2) what is the relationship between fear metaphors and orientational image schema? The results show that fear in English dictionaries has a hierarchical structure, in which fear is the basic word and other synonyms are its subordinates. Also, fear expressions making use of metaphors are closely associated with orientation image schema. Through the discussion, our study provides a better understanding about the relationship between language and emotions.

As pessoas utilizam as metaforas cotidianamente e compartilham conhecimentos e experiencias socio-historicas e culturais. Com o intuito de construir uma rede de significados sobre as questoes corporais e culturais, este trabalho busca analisar o discurso de universitarios obesos e nao obesos quanto ao compartilhamento de expressoes metaforicas, e por consequencia de metaforas conceptuais sobre corpo. Esse discurso esta atrelado ao pensamento e a acao humana e constroi uma rede de significados sobre as questoes corporais. Os pressupostos teoricos partem da Teoria da Metafora Conceptual (Lakoff e Johnson, 1980, 1999), que percebe a cognicao atrelada as condicoes corporais e socioculturais, segundo a qual as metaforas sao convencionais, culturais, inconscientes e de acesso automatico, refletindo ideologias e modos de ver o mundo. O estudo apresenta o levantamento das expressoes metaforicas presentes nas entrevistas individuais coletadas com universitarios obesos e nao obesos. A analise versa pela explicacao e caracterizacao das expressoes metaforicas, possibilitando revelar as metaforas conceptuais correspondentes, no contexto socio-historico e cultural atual. A compreensao dos resultados evidencia a presenca de um discurso dominante sobre corpo, com muitas convergencias sobre as relacoes corporeas. Palavras-chave: corpo, discurso, metafora conceptual, obesos/nao obesos.

Metaphorical language, though often overlooked, plays a pivotal role in couple's therapy, shaping the dynamics of communication and influencing conflict resolution processes. This conceptual exploration delves into the multifaceted impact of metaphorical language on the therapeutic discourse within couples. Through a synthesis of existing literature and theoretical frameworks, this paper elucidates the intricate interplay between metaphorical expressions and the resolution of relational conflicts. The use of metaphorical language in couple's therapy serves as a symbolic bridge, facilitating the articulation of deeply rooted emotions and experiences that may otherwise remain inaccessible. Metaphors act as linguistic vehicles, enabling individuals to convey complex thoughts and feelings in a manner that transcends literal expression. Within the therapeutic context, metaphors offer a creative space for couples to explore their relationship dynamics, perceptions, and narratives. Furthermore, metaphorical language not only elucidates individual experiences but also shapes the shared reality constructed by couples. Metaphors can reveal underlying relational patterns, power dynamics, and unspoken assumptions, thereby fostering insight and empathy between partners. By reframing conflicts through metaphorical lenses, couples can gain a fresh perspective on their challenges, promoting collaborative problem-solving and mutual understanding. However, the impact of metaphorical language in couple's therapy is not unidimensional. Misinterpretations or divergent interpretations of metaphors may inadvertently exacerbate misunderstandings or conflicts within the therapeutic process. Therapists must navigate the nuances of metaphorical communication sensitively, balancing interpretation with validation of individual experiences and perspectives. This conceptual exploration highlights the significance of metaphorical language in shaping the therapeutic discourse and its potential implications for conflict resolution in couple's therapy. By embracing and exploring metaphorical expressions, therapists can harness the transformative power of language to facilitate insight, empathy, and ultimately, relational healing within couples. Further empirical research is warranted to elucidate the nuanced mechanisms through which metaphorical language influences therapeutic outcomes in couple's therapy.

This paper, targeting at the news coverage related to the insider trading of the Taiwan Development Corporation share in Liberty Times and United Daily News-two ideologically opposed newspapers in Taiwan, aims to reveal how these two newspapers represent the same event. Taking critical discourse analysis and conceptual metaphor theory as the theoretical consideration, this paper, exploring the representations of the whole case, the key persons involved as well as the prosecuting/investigating system(s) in Taiwan, has confirmed that UDN's strategy exposes its disbelief toward Chao and President Chen. On the other hand, the representation of this issue in LT shows it leans toward the ruling Democratic Progressive Party, especially toward President Chen.

This study investigates the role of metaphorical competence in interpreting scientific texts, with a focus on enhancing English for Specific Purposes (ESP) in aeronautics. Metaphorical language is often used in scientific discourse to convey abstract and complex concepts. In Aeronautical English, understanding these metaphors is crucial for learners to comprehend technical terminology and communicate effectively in professional settings. The research methodology evaluates students' ability to decode and use metaphorical expressions in technical aeronautical texts, essential for understanding advanced concepts and ensuring clear communication in the aeronautical engineering industry. Data on metaphorical knowledge was collected through pre- and post-tests, which involved administering various metaphorical exercises to the participants. The intervention focused on the metaphorical language analysis of an aviation text. By equipping learners with the skills to recognize and apply metaphorical language, the study aims to enhance their proficiency in Aviation English. The findings are expected to show improvements in the post-assessment phase, demonstrating how mastering technical metaphorical terminology can significantly boost metaphorical competence, a key skill for mastering English in aeronautical engineering. Ultimately, this study seeks to bridge the gap between abstract language and practical application, contributing to more effective and innovative approaches to teaching ESP in aeronautics.

A general mechanism for the oxygen-assisted synthesis of amides over metallic gold and silver surfaces has been derived from the study of acetaldehyde and dimethylamine in combination with previous work, allowing detailed comparison of the two surfaces' reactivities. Facile acetylation of dimethylamine by acetaldehyde occurs with high selectivity on oxygen-covered silver and gold (111) crystals via a common overall mechanism with different rate-limiting steps on the two metals. Adsorbed atomic oxygen activates the N-H bond of the amine leading to the formation of an adsorbed amide, which attacks the carbonyl carbon of the aldehyde, forming an adsorbed hemiaminal. Because aldehydes are known to form readily from partial oxidation of alcohols, our mechanism also provides insight into the related catalytic coupling of alcohols and amines. The hemiaminal β-H eliminates to form the coupled amide product. On silver, β-H elimination from the hemiaminal is rate-limiting, whereas on gold desorption of the amide is the slow step. Silver exhibits high selectivity for the coupling reaction for adsorbed oxygen concentrations between 0.01 and 0.1 monolayer, whereas gold exhibits selectivity more strongly dependent on oxygen coverage, approaching 100% at 0.03 monolayer. The selectivity trends and difference in rate-limiting steps are likely due to the influence of the relative stability of the adsorbed hydroxyl groups on the two surfaces. Low surface coverages of oxygen lead to the highest selectivity. This study provides a general framework for the oxygen-assisted coupling of alcohols and aldehydes with amines over gold- and silver-based catalysts in either the vapor or the liquid phase.

ABSTRACTWithin the framework of Lakoff and Johnson cognitive theory (2003. Metaphors we live by. Chicago: University of Chicago Press), we explore the use of metaphor in the English and Russian economic discourses as the means to create a metaphorical field, comprising culture-specific and universally shared cognitive blends. We apply the cognitive and comparative analyses to metaphor, which shapes the Economy concept as a cultural code in a corpus of economic texts from English and Russian press. The approach helps to reveal the associative links between source and target domains within metaphorical mappings. Thus, metaphors ECONOMY IS A ROAD, ECONOMY IS AN ANIMAL, ECONOMY IS A DISEASE, ECONOMY IS FOOD, and ECONOMY IS A MECHANISM are common for both languages. For the English language, unique, culturally determined metaphors are ECONOMY IS FIRE and ECONOMY IS STORM, whereas for the Russian language, they are ECONOMY IS THE BOTTOM and ECONOMY IS CLIMATE. Therefore, metaphorical codes in a given language account for risks, opportunities and uncertainties of systematically different economies through multicultural discourse interpretation.

This research attempts at analyzing some selected songs of Black Brothers, a legendary popular band of Papua, using hidden transcript theory by James Scott. In avoiding direct retaliation with the ruling tyrant somehow some people would employ safer way in making criticism. This form of passive and peaceful resistance is disguised and veiled through witty symbolism and linguistic trick such as metaphorical expression, euphemism, folktales, and anonymity. Therefore, in order to understand and unveil the intended message behind those disguises, one has to make a careful reading. And to have a good undertanding of hidden transcript in Black Brothers' songs hopefully can raise people's sense of humanityand can stand up for truth and for their right.

Several efforts have been made to study metaphors of different colors in various languages of the world. The studies of metaphors have been conducted from different viewpoints. Metaphor is regarded as a literary method, the best poetic one that is used by numerous writers. Things, plants,animals, phenomena and colors are used as objects to give the message indirect ways.Consequently, I assume that there could be numerous similar metaphors in various languages. My study aims to compare the similarities and differences in the conceptualization of black color metaphors in both languages. Moreover, another goal of this paper is to support foreign researchers and students comprehend the similarities and differences of English and Mongolian and to give a valuable support during their research work and studies. In addition, I am trying to show that there must be some culture/language-specific metaphors. I have found that there are more similarities than differences between the metaphorical expressions in English and Mongolian. A comparative study of black color metaphors may be extremely valuable to overwhelmed misunderstanding and identify cross-cultural communication in both languages. There is still much to explore the relationship of the various degrees of this field, and study on color terms deserves more attention.

The study examines metaphorical expressions in Igbo. It specifically analyzes the linguistic and cultural values, and beliefs in Igbo metaphors. The study adopted the Key Informant Interview method in data collection as well as introspection as a native speaker of Igbo. It was discovered that interpretation of Igbo metaphorical expressions involves the linguistic features of implicature, inference and referencing well as understanding of the cultural nuances of the referents used in Igbo metaphors. The study identified that metaphorical expressions concretize the Igbo worldview. This worldview, beliefs and values are represented in the cultural connotations of referents of Igbo metaphors. The study identified some referents with their cultural connotations such as animals, and natural/physical objects. The author concludes that understanding of metaphor in Igbo entails knowledge of cultural and contextual nuances of the referent of the metaphor in the Igbo language and culture.

This article explores the structural and functional characteristics of metaphors in the poetic language of zhyrau, who played a pivotal role in shaping Kazakh national consciousness and identity. The study investigates metaphors not only as stylistic devices but also as essential cognitive and discursive structures rooted in historical, social, and cultural contexts. Drawing on cognitive, structural-semantic, mythopoetic, and comparative-historical methods, the authors classify metaphors found in tolgau poetry into individual (authorial), conceptual, archetypal (symbolic), and discourse-based types. The article demonstrates how metaphors in zhyrau poetry express philosophical reflections, national ideology, and social critique, functioning as tools for political communication and historical narration. The poetic texts of prominent zhyrau such as Bukhar, Makhambet, Kaztugan, and Dospambet are analyzed to reveal the depth and diversity of metaphorical expressions, including equestrian, martial, and natural imagery. Through detailed textual analysis, the authors show how metaphor serves as a bridge between artistic expression and conceptual thought, enabling zhyrau to convey complex ideas on leadership, aging, conflict, and unity. The research emphasizes the syncretic role of the zhyrau—as poet, advisor, strategist, and ideologue—within the governance structure of the Kazakh Khanate. Ultimately, the study concludes that metaphor in zhyrau poetics is a multidimensional phenomenon that preserves and transmits national values, worldview, and historical memory, making it an integral part of Kazakhstan’s literary and cultural heritage.

Metaphors are a critical aspect of acquiring English. It is grounded in the conceptual system of English L1 users, so there might be a discrepancy between the comprehension and utilization of learners of English as L2, especially if the metaphors entail one aspect of pragmatics, emotion. This paper concentrates on the comprehension and utilization of emotion metaphors in L2 English learners, composing mainly of high school students. The participants must fill out a questionnaire containing seven questions examining the aspects mentioned above of emotion metaphors and metaphors. After analyzing the answers, comprehension can be categorized into two categoriesbasic and deep. By dividing the level of comprehension, a correlation can be drawn between the comprehension level and production of emotion metaphors, using MIP, an established method to identify whether there is a metaphorical expression or not in a discourse. This paper tests the less focused side of the metaphor study, trying to draw a primary conclusion on the relationship between comprehension and utilization of metaphors in hopes of allowing learners of English as L2 to understand more about the mechanism of metaphors and how they are applied to describe emotions.