明清檔案、人名、職官的關連性分析

Sable, sea otter, and lynx furs, as well as other valuable pelts, were much sought after luxury items during the Ming dynasty. Unfortunately, due to the regulations of the time, the use and enjoyment of these furs was limited to the royal family, government officials, and eunuchs only. During the Ming dynasty, valuable furs were mainly imported from Manchurian and Mongolian regions. However, because only a few tens of thousands of furs were imported every year, an amount far smaller than that imported during the Qing dynasty, these furs were especially rare. Like jewelry, sable furs created in the rich the desire to imitate those persons of greater power or higher stature than themselves. At the turn of the sixteenth century, a number of Beijing's literati as well as wealthy merchants, noble ladies, famous prostitutes, and powerful servants began to dress above their class, and the imperial government even had to issue sumptuary laws to forbid this practice. However, when compared with the government's continual issuance of laws prohibiting the use of silk clothing, it is obvious that fur apparel was targeted much less frequently as sporting furs was forbidden only four times during the Ming. After 1570, following a tributary arrangement arrived at by the Ming and Mongolian governments, avenues for fur importation became more diverse, and records of people donning sable apparel also increased. Fur clothing spread from previous fur centers like Beijing and Nan Zhili to the Shandong, Henan, Shanxi, Shaanxi, Zhejiang, and Huguang regions as well. However, by the second half of the sixteenth century, a sable coat cost at least one hundred taels of silver, a price even some government officials could not afford. After 1610, fewer and fewer high quality Manchurian furs were imported due to attacks lead by the Manchurian leader Nurhachi. This caused frequent increases in fur prices, and, as a result, even fewer people could afford to wear fur items. When viewing the issue from a climatic perspective, we can see that because the Nan Zhili, Zhejiang, and Huguang areas were located in the south, valuable fur coats, known for their ability to provide warmth, were not, in fact, necessary in these regions. However, richer classes still wore those furs as a means by which to flaunt their wealth. On the other hand, the greater portion of the common people in the bitter cold border regions along the Great Wall wore only cotton or lambskin coats to pass the winter. Due to sable's high value, it became a prime tool with which to bribe powerful officials or eunuchs as well as a means by which to flatter officials inspecting border passes, and some furs were even made into curtains, toilet seat covers, or floor spreads and rugs.

A kid being murdered for revealing the adultery between his widowed mother and a monk was a real case that happened during Qing Dynasty in Tung-shou. This case has since then become a popular subject matter for many novels, ballads and drama due to the appeals of immorality and cruelty. It used to be able to attract a large number of audiences here in Taiwan. Through reviewing historical documents, court novels in Qing Dynasty, libretto of folk songs, the written records and oral history of the play Son-Murdering since the Japanese colonial period, as well as comparing the above-mentioned with official documents and newspapers, I try to reconstruct the spreading, adaptation, and performance of this play. To summarize, my research has come to the conclusion that the adaptation of Son-Murdering has acquired immoral and sensational features, along with realistic and exciting theatrical arts. This play has been widely criticized by government officials and scholars, and yet maintained its popular support among the folks and in commercial theaters. The play is thus a combination of current-affairs drama and obscene drama. All these contribute to the peculiar and paradoxical phenomenon of popularity and prohibition.

It is natural for people to think that the increasing popularity of seeking medical treatment and the continuous development of medicine are the important embodiment of the progress of human civilization. Generally speaking, the progress of medical technology and the abundance of medical resources mean that the phenomenon of self-treatment is reduced. However, this study of Chinese medical history found that it had always been a common choice to seek self-treatment for people in all social classes, from literati and bureaucrats to ordinary people in remote mountainous areas, especially during the Ming and Qing Dynasties in China. Such records can be seen especially when looking through historical materials such as medical books, local chronicles, genealogies, notes, and anthologies. Although medical skills in Ming-Qing era were more developed than previous eras and the local medical resources were more abundant, from ordinary people in remote areas to elite groups such as literati and officials, people often regarded self-treatment as a basic choice when they or their family members fell ill, no matter whether they had the ability or the opportunity to delay medical treatment. This article aims to explore the logic and root behind this seemingly contradictory phenomenon. Therefore, this research first raises the question: what accounted for this seemingly contradictory phenomenon? In response to this question, this study confirms the following: Firstly, low barriers to entry and high rewards drove people of varying qualifications into the medical profession, and good doctors were hard to find; thus, self-treatment was no worse than the alternatives. Secondly, in the Ming-Qing dynasties, Confucian physicians tended to write more practical prescriptions, which gave many people the opportunity to improve their own medical knowledge and provided great convenience for self-treatment. Thirdly, since the mid-Ming Dynasty, the high medical cost had caused serious difficulties for ordinary people to seek professional medical care, so they tried their best to save themselves when they fell ill. On this basis, this study further found that the deeper reason for this phenomenon lies in the incoordination between the high degree of daily life style of traditional medical treatment and the corresponding low degree of medical specialization and professionalism. Then, this leads to another question: is this incongruity a historical norm or a product of a certain historical stage? This article argues that during the Ming-Qing era, in the macro trend, the two showed a competitive relationship. However, in the context of a broader and more microscopic time and space, is this competitive relationship valid? Especially at present, chronic non-communicable diseases are becoming the biggest threat to human health. With the professional development of medical technology, the trend of medical life-style has also become a reasonable way to fill the gap from highly authoritative medical treatment and take on the responsibilities of their own health. This kind of medical specialization and life-style seems to be developing in parallel. Therefore, it can be concluded that the dissonance between the two is only the product of a certain historical period. Finally, this study raises another relevant question: what are the social and cultural implications behind the parallel development of medical life and specialization? This is a question to be answered in future research on the topic.

The chapter heading for chapter fictions in Ming and Qing Dynasties is an important part of the novel and has distinct characteristics. The main manifestations are as follows: First, the language is concise and clear. Second, the syntactic structure is fixed. Third, it covers the elements of people, things, and verbs. In the process of translating the chapter fictions in Ming and Qing dynasties, translators need to master the characteristics of the chapter fictions in Ming and Qing dynasties, effectively and skillfully use parts of speech conversion, amplification and omission and attach importance to the translation of adverbs in chapter fictions. The translation of chapter fictions in Ming and Qing Dynasties will be more in line with their own characteristics and more accurate through the mastery and use of these translation techniques.

Background During the Ming and Qing dynasties, as a mature period of traditional Chinese society, the education system dominated by the imperial examination system deeply penetrated the social fabric. Existing research mostly focuses on explicit issues such as the evolution of the education system and cheating in the imperial examination system, with insufficient empirical research on its value shaping and psychological impact, and a lack of quantitative support. The study focuses on the Ming and Qing imperial examination archives, local chronicles, and literati diaries as core historical materials, combined with quantitative statistics and text analysis methods, to explore the mechanism of the impact of educational content and form on social core values and group psychology, aiming to provide a new perspective for exploring the modern value of traditional education. Methods The study selected local chronicles from 286 counties in 13 provinces during the Ming and Qing dynasties, 432 imperial examination answer sheets, 156 literary diaries, and 307 family education records as research samples, including different educational levels and regions. Using content analysis method to encode core textbooks and answer texts such as "Annotations to the Four Books, Chapters and Sentences," and extract values keywords; Use historical demographic methods to analyze the correlation data between sample education level, occupation, and social behavior. The study first uses bibliometric methods to screen representative historical materials, removing non first-hand materials with a credibility of less than 85%; Then use Nvivo software to encode the values dimension of the text; Finally, correlation analysis was conducted using SPSS to explore the correlation between education years, scores of various values, and psychological representations. Results Data shows that among those who receive systematic Confucian education, 83% of respondents list "loyalty to the monarch and filial piety" as their core values, which is much higher than the 21% of those who have not received formal education; There is a significant positive correlation (r = 0.76, p<.01) between the length of education and the value of valuing righteousness over profit. The score of this dimension is 2.3 times higher for the Jinshi group than for the Tongsheng group. On a psychological level, the frequency of scholars and above mentioning adversity and striving in their diaries is 3.1 times higher than that of young students per year, and the frequency of expressing anxiety about fame and achievements in the juren class is 1.8 times higher than that of the Jinshi group. Discussion The research results indicate that traditional education has a strong shaping power on social values, and the cultivation model of both morality and talent has reference significance for contemporary moral education. Psychological phenomena such as fame anxiety provide a historical mirror for modern education pressure relief. The limitation of this study lies in the insufficient attention paid to folk education forms such as private schools, free schools, and clan education in the Ming and Qing dynasties. Future research can explore the value transmission path of grassroots education by sorting out first-hand materials such as local clan account books and private school teaching logs.

Shi Da-san 釋大汕 (1637-1705) spent his youth in the Wu region and became a Zen monk. He befriended men in southern China who had been among the social elite of the previous dynasty, such as: Du Jun, Wu Wei-ye, Fang Wen, and Fan Yizhi. In his thirties, he directed the Longevity Monastery in Guangzhou, where he cultivated friendships with local celebrities, such as: Qu Da-jun, Chen Gong-yin, and Liang Pei-lan. Following the trend of portrait painting, Shi Da-san began a series of thirty-four self-portraits during the reign of Emperor Kang Xi. The collection these images, called Xing Ji Tu 行跡圖, provide a pictorial narration of his life. Each of the self-portraits has inscriptions from the educated elite or monks, as requested by Shi Da-san, and the inscriptions are collected in the first chapter of his book Li Liu Tang Ji 離六堂集. The self-portrait album is a rarity and a record of Shi Da-san's life from childhood to his middle age, a life embracing the mundane world and the pursuit of the religious world while befriending social elite. This paper explores the messages in the self-portraits of Xing Ji Tu and their inscriptions from the perspectives of Zen, the mingling of Confucianism and Buddhism, and the multifaceted life. The conclusion discusses the talent and defamation of Shi Da-san, categorizes the design and symbolic images in the self-portraits, and explores the intertextuality and sounds of the text. Shi Da-san's Xing Ji Tu is a classic example of multi-textual writing- portraits, inscriptions, and biography- which provides a glimpse into the culture of the early Qing Dynasty.

West Liaohe Basin is one of the key regions in the West development strategies implemented by the Chinese Government,and its eco-environment is vulnerable.Study on land reclamation and its influence on environment is the only way to explore the cause of land desertification and seek for the proper pattern of land use. (1)This paper examines changes of the land reclamation in West Liaohe Basin in about 100 years(1902-1990).At the end of the Qing Dynasty,it had no land to open up in the south of West Liaohe,but areas of plowland got increased in counties and Qis(banners) in the north of West Liaohe.In the period of Republic of China,much plowland was turned into wasteland in the south of West Liaohe,but in the north of West Liaohe,a great amount of grassland was developed into arable land.After liberation(1949),because of unreasonable land policies,all grassland was almost opened up completely. (2)Above all,natural environment in West Liaohe Basin has been greatly influenced.First,vegetation was destroyed,so the virgin forest of the Qing Dynasty now becomes the secondary forest dominately composed of mountain polar and white pirch,and the thick forest gets the thin one.Secondly,wild animals lost their natural living environment owing to vegetation destruction,so small animals such as rabbits,pheasants,crows,pied magpies and so on,now become rarer and rarer besides of macro-animals being extinct. (3)Soil erosion happened in the Qing Dynasty,lately reclamation took place at a large scale at the end of the Qing Dynasty,much plowland changed into wasteland in Republic of China,and extensive reclamation after liberation makes it on the rise.

Natural and social environment changes have played important roles in social evolution in different times and spaces. Geopolitical change, in particular, might play a decisive role in social evolution during historical periods. The eastern Tienshan Mountains was a transportation hub for communication between the East and the West, where the natural environment is fragile and the social environment has been complex during the historical period. However, geopolitical change and its impact on local social development remain unclear due to fragmented historical records and limited studies. This study investigates the spatiotemporal variations of military facilities in the Hami region, and compares historical documents and archaeological and paleoclimate records to discuss geopolitical changes and social evolution during the historical period in the eastern Tienshan Mountains. A total of 84 visible organic remains from 38 historic beacon towers and 8 dak sites in the Hami region of the eastern Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, northwestern China, were collected and the radiocarbon (14C) dates of these ruins were systematically determined with accelerator mass spectrometry. The dating results show that these sites were mainly built during two major periods: ca. 600–900 cal AD and ca. 1600–1950 cal AD, which roughly correspond to the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD) and the Qing Dynasty (1636–1912 AD) in ancient China. Human settlement intensity was high during the Han, Tang, and Qing dynasties, and relatively low when the area was controlled by nomadic or local regimes. This suggests that agricultural empires and nomadic/local regimes adopted different strategies for regional management. Climate change might have affected geopolitical patterns, which, in turn, profoundly influenced human activities and social evolution in the eastern Tienshan Mountains over the last two millennia. This study systematically reveals the spatiotemporal variations of beacon towers and dak ruins in the region through a large number of reliable direct 14C dating, it reveals the remarkable differences in human activities in the eastern Tienshan Mountains under different administrations, and it explores the influence of geopolitics and climate change on social evolution in the eastern Tienshan Mountains from a multidisciplinary perspective.

Flooding and warfare were important challenges to the development of human societies in the Late Holocene, especially in flood-prone areas, including the Bailongjiang Basin in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau. It is not clear how ancient societies in this region fought against flooding and war, and its study is an important way to explore the patterns of human-environment interactions. In response to these questions, a detailed survey of ancient cities in the upper Bailongjiang River during the historical period was carried out, and 42 dating samples were collected from six ancient cities and one site. The results showed that these ancient cities were mainly built during the Tang and Qing dynasties. Among them, a unique three-dimensional defence system was discovered for the first time in the investigation and research in the area of the ancient city of Diezhou, including city walls and water retaining walls from the Sui and Tang dynasties, as well as enclosure walls and beacon flints from the Qing dynasty. A combination of geomorphological surveys, historical documents, and paleoclimatic data suggests that ancient humans constructed the three-dimensional defence system in this area mainly in response to high-frequency flooding triggered by climate change, as well as wars between the Tang and Tubo, and between the Qing and the Heshuit Khanates. This study provides a typical example of human-water-war interactions during the historical period in the high mountain valley area of the northeastern Tibetan Plateau, which is of great academic value for the in-depth understanding of the process and mechanism of the evolution of human-earth relations in the high mountain valley area.

The board of directors is the steering wheel organizations use to achieve their goals and its composition has widely been analysed. This paper will show how the number of former government officials has increased in the board of large Spanish firms over the last two decades depending on the number of former government officials in the board and how regulated the industry is. The results will also show that even though there was a period in which more former government officials joined boards, the numbers have stabilised in recent years due to, among other factors, the increasing concerns in society related to the “revolving doors” behaviours.

Along the coast of the Huang Ho ships could sail from Lan Chou to Ho Kou Chen. This water transport was used as the main economic artery connecting the North West of China and Peking. Medicines and other things were carried down on a raft from Lan Chou. Ho Kou Chen had grown more prosperous year by year in the Ching Dynasty as the terminus of this water transport.Neither the officers of the central government nor those of the local government resided in Ho Kou Chen. The municipal administration was in the hands of an organization called ho chieh. Ho chieh was at first a territorial unit like a village having p'ai - a neighbourhood unit composed of ten houses - as its main substructure. With the development of commerce and industry, however, the p'ai turned into a gild merchant since merchant capital - mainly rice brokers and pawnbrokers - had come to hold real power. This organization had, therefore, a joint gild of rice brokers and pawnbrokers as its main constituents and many other gilds, such as the trade gild, the area gild, the neighbourhood gild etc. were placed under its control.The gild merchant had two chiefs called hsiang ch'i. They were elected from, for instance, the rice brokers and they held their office at the hsiang ch'i fu. They had the pao chang do the administrative work. The pao chang arose from the pao chia system-an administrative organization, but actually the pao chang were employees of the ho chieh and were paid by them. In Ho Kou Chen there was nothing that had any connection with the government administration, nor was any kind of government autonomy enforced. Instead, the gild merchant, acting as go-between for the government officials and the people, carried on the peripheral affairs of the autocracy in obedience to the officials' orders on the one hand, and forced the officials to accept requests from the people on the other hand. One case of the former was the construction of embankments and one of the latter was the abolition of double taxation. So far as the municipal administration was concerned, the officials could do nothing without the help of the gild merchant and the gild merchant had no authority without the backing of the Ch'ing Dynasty. This was the real fact of the so-called "autocratic dynasty." The jobs of the hsiang ch'i fu (they were not undertaken on that body's own initiative) were to execute the municipal administrative affairs such as. administration of the court of justice, of the police, of the night watch; economic administration such as the standardization of weights and measures; public undertakings such as schools, wells, ferries; religious undertakings such as dedication of plays; various kinds of charitable undertakings and so on.Moreover, it did some temporary works such as offering prayers for rain in case of drought. It was a noticeable fact that the gild merchant had its own army, not the army of the government, and looked after the safety of the city and traffic.Most of the various groups in Ho Kou Chen were at first neighbourhood units or area units, the latter being organized in every hsien in most cases, but with the development of commerce and industry, the gilds came to take the place of these units. After the appren-ticecraftman system was established, paternal autocracy thoroughly permeated every workshop on the one hand and on the other hand the family came into power as a communistic unit as a natural result of the feudalistic commerce and industry. The ho huo system was established as a structure for such commerce and industry as this. All storekeepers were under the control of merchant capital and at the same time they belonged to a community-like-fellowship. This contradictory state of affairs resulted in both disorganization and reactionary strengthening of the feudalistic commerce and industry. The gild was an organization founded on the feudalistic commerce and industry. It was organized differently for different trades.

ABSTRACTWe examine the impact of information system (IS) function maturity and IS planning process on IS planning success in an exploratory approach. We conducted non-linear regression analysis using the Alternating Conditional Expectations algorithm, and found significant non-linear relationships between the dimensions of IS function maturity/IS planning process and those of IS planning success. We also visualised how various IS planning success measures can evolve with low or high values of determinant variables. We used four dimensions of capabilities, analysis, cooperation, and alignment to evaluate IS planning success. We also employed four dimensions to analyse each of IS function maturity and IS planning process. IS function maturity consists of IT planning mode, IT integration, IT industry practice, and IT perspective. On the other hand, IS planning process is composed of long-range planning, medium-range managerial planning, short-range operational planning, and organisational IT potential.

There was a long debate on the question of the study of the Book of Songs. In that debate, there were two main theses. One of them was to revere the study in the Han Dynasty and to follow the point of Mao Heng and Cheng Hsuan then affirming the value of the foreword of the Book of Songs; other one was to revere the study in Sung Dynasty and to follow the point of Chu Hsi then refute the value of the foreword of the Book of Songs. Ku Tungkao was deeply worried about this situation. He comprehend all the theses then write Mao shih ting ku and Mao shih lei shih to the use of correcting the misunderstanding and inducting. These two books plated a carrying on and inspiring role in the study of Book of songs in the early Ching Dynasty. This paper was focused on the analysis of Ku’s study of the Book of Songs to investigate its characteristics, value and influence. There are six chapters in this paper. The first chapter is the introduction to expound the intention to research, the method of research and the commentary on the resent research. The second chapter is the investigation into two points. One is the growing of the study of the Book of songs; other one is the formation of the fashion of textual study. The study of the Book of songs was diversified by these two points. Then, the most important influence of the textual research of the Book of songs was caused by its scholium. This chapter is also the investigation into the importance of the study of things and systems in the early Ching Dynasty for it caused a deep influence of the academic approach in Ching Dynasty. The third chapter is about Ku’s brief biographical sketch, study, literary works, friends and teachers so that we can know more about him and his academic research. In this chapter, the second paragraph is about these two books, Mao shih ting ku and Mao shih lei shih. Through the versions and general form of these two books, I describe Ku’s intension to write; through the analysis of these two books, I understood Ku’s writing method. The forth chapter is about Ku’s explanation method to the Book of songs. It’s about how he quoted many words of others, checked everywhere to find the main point of the Book of songs. In this chapter, I investigated Ku’s point of view about the study of Book of songs in Mao shih ting ku. The fifth chapter is the investigation of Ku’s stubby of things and systems in Mao shih lei shih. He quoted many people’s words to find the true meaning of the Book of songs. His investigation was well-knit and with original discovery. The last chapter is the conclusion. This chapter is about Ku’s research result, academic achievement in the study of the Book of songs and contribution.

The aim of the study was to investigate the positivity of human papillomavirus (HPV) and the possible related risk factors for HPV infection in certain district government in Daqing city, Heilongjiang province. A total of 2015 female staffs who participated cervical cancer screening were selected as subjects, in certain district government in Daqing city, Heilongjiang province, from June to October, 2010. First of all, a standardized questionnaire was used for collection of subject's demographic information and possible risk factors. Afterwards, cervical cytological and HPV DNA testing were applied to all participants. Subjects with suspected cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) or cervical cancer were recalled for taking biopsy under colposcopy for further histopathological diagnosis. Standardized HPV positivity by Segi's world population and compared the difference of HPV positivity of different types. The positivity of HPV between women with and without cervical abnormalities were compared by unconditional logistic regression. And the possible risk factors for HPV infection were also investigated. A total of 1759 out of 2015 subjects had gynecological examination, among which 152 subjects were HPV positive. The positivity of HPV was 8.64% (95%CI: 7.37% - 10.05%), and it was 8.47% (95%CI: 7.93% - 9.03%) after age standardization. Finally, 57 (3.24%) and 1702 (96.76%) subjects had abnormal (≥ CIN1 or low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (LSIL)) and normal cervix, respectively. The HPV positivity between women with and without cervical abnormalities were 73.68% (42/57) and 6.46% (110/1702), respectively. There was a significant difference (χ(2) = 307.23, P < 0.05) in HPV positivity between women with and without cervical abnormalities. The risk of cervical abnormalities for women with HPV positivity was 40.52 times (95%CI: 21.79 - 75.36) higher than that for women with HPV negativity. Among women with cervical abnormalities, the most three common HPV types, in descending order, were HPV16 (28.07% (16/57)), HPV52 (14.04% (8/57)) and HPV58 (12.28% (7/57)). While among women with normal cervix, the most three common HPV types were HPV52 (1.23% (21/1702)), HPV16 (1.00% (17/1702)) and HPV58 (0.71% (12/1702)). The positivity of HPV clade A9 among women with and without cervical abnormalities were 59.65% (34/57) and 3.23% (55/1702), which were higher than that of other clades. Analysis for risk factors of HPV infection showed that smoking (OR = 2.71, 95%CI: 1.00 - 7.33), late age (≥ 15 years old) of menarche (OR = 1.44, 95%CI: 1.00 - 2.05), early age (≤ 20 years old) of marriage (OR = 3.09, 95%CI: 1.30 - 7.35), multiple (≥ 2) sexual partners (OR = 2.69, 95%CI: 1.46 - 4.95), husband's extramarital sexual behaviors (OR = 2.77, 95%CI: 1.25 - 6.12) and multiple (≥ 2 times) parity (OR = 1.77, 95%CI: 1.03 - 3.03) would increase the risk of HPV positivity. HPV positivity among women with cervical abnormalities was significantly higher than that among women with normal cervix. HPV16, 52, 58 were the major genotypes among the study population. Smoking, late age of menarche, early age of marriage, multiple sexual partners, husband extramarital sexual behaviors and multiple parity increase the risk of HPV infection.

There have been wars since the beginning of the history. Wars are the most common ways for human beings to deal with conflicts. Therefore, there were many records about wars in the historical books. As a result, the writors had to face the problems of handling the war plots when they narrated the historical stories. Although historical biographies and historical novels were about the wars, they were different in the narrating ways. Besides, perhaps there was something worthy of thinking in the meanings of narrating. Since the historical noves were retrieved from the historical biographies, was there a continuation of some cultural spirit? Did they have the same value and reflection on the meaning of wars? Therefore, this study was aimed to write from the perspective of the war meaning. It would focus on the Ming Qing Jia Jiang Novels. By the comparison between the ancient war ideas and the narrative contents of the novels, the reflections of the historical novels on the meanings of wars were explored. And then, the continual value of historical biographies to the historical noves in cultural spirit was proved.