「非章華，是靈臺」：先秦至漢代的高臺建築

Beijing (also known as Peking in older romanization of Mandarin Chinese) is the current capital city of the People’s Republic of China. It is one of the six great ancient capitals of China, the other five being Xi’an, Luoyang, Kaifeng, Nanjing, and Hangzhou. Given the long Chinese history and compared to other ancient capitals, Beijing is relatively young. It served as the capitals for the last three imperial dynasties, the Yuan (1279–1368), the Ming (1368–1644), and the Qing (1644–1911), as well as the Beiyang period of the Republic China (1912–1927). During the 10th to 13th centuries when the north and south were split, it served as capital for the northern regimes of the Liao and Jin empires, both of which were founded by non-Chinese-speaking peoples, the Khitan and the Jurchen respectively. Before the unification of China by the First Emperor of Qin in 221 bce, the capital for the Yan state of the Spring and Autumn period (771–476 bce) and the Warring States period (476–221 bce) was also located in the Beijing area. During the period from the Qin dynasty to the Five dynasties (3rd century bce to 10th century ce), the area hosted the seats for prefecture-level local government under various names. Beijing means the Northern Capital. The current Beijing city was developed from the Ming-Qing imperial capital of the same name. The city was known by many different names in different historical periods. According to the Nine Provinces (Jiuzhou) division of the Xia and Shang dynasties (21st–11th centuries bce) in the Book of Documents (Shangshu), one of the Confucian classics that contains some of the oldest historical records of ancient China, Beijing belonged to the province of Youzhou. During the Zhou periods (11th–3rd centuries bce), it was known as Ji or Yandu, the Capital of the Yan State. As a prefecture-level city, it was known as Ji in the Qin dynasty (221–206 bce), Guangyang in the Han dynasty (202 bce–220 ce), and Yan during the Western Jin and the Age of Disunion period (220–589). The area became the Zhuo county during the Sui dynasty (581–618) and the You prefecture during the Tang dynasty (618–906). It was called Nanjing, or the Southern Capital, in the Liao dynasty (907–1125), and Zhongdu, or the Middle Capital, in the Jin dynasty (1115–1234). Under the Mongol rule of the Yuan dynasty, the city, called Dadu, the Great Capital, became the capital of an enormous empire unifying the north and the south for the first time. During the early years of the Ming dynasty from 1368 to 1402 and during the late years of the Republic period from 1928 to 1949 when the city was not the national capital, it was called Beiping. Like the name, the specific location of the city also kept changing in history. The current location of the central city was anchored during the Yuan dynasty with a minor shift to the south during the Ming reconstruction. The history of architecture in Beijing can be traced back to the prehistoric time. Archaeologists have discovered tombs and remains of dwellings from about ten thousand years ago. Extant buildings in the Beijing area, however, are no earlier than the Liao dynasty. Literatures on architecture of Beijing are mostly dispersed in books on Chinese architecture in general or of a specific dynasty, period, regime, type, or religious tradition, which are not included in this bibliography. Books written specifically on the architecture of Beijing concentrate on the late imperial to the modern period. Some of them are typologically focused, for instance, on Buddhist temples; others are case studies on significant buildings, complexes, or urban elements, for instance, the Forbidden City, Chang’an Avenue, Tiananmen Square, etc. Some historical documents, for instance the local gazetteers, contain important information on the architecture and urban space of Beijing, which are also included in the following lists. Some specialized studies on the folkways and traditional urban life of Beijing are closely related to architecture and the urban space, for instance the traditional theater and the hutong life, which are classified under the last category.

“The Tao Te Ching” is the core representative work of Taoist thought, which has had a profound influence on Chinese culture. In the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, Taoist thought, Confucianism, and Legalism jointly formed a great ideological trend of contention. Since Dong Zhongshu proposed the idea of “abolishing the hundred schools of thought and only respecting Confucianism” in the Han Dynasty, Confucianism has become the mainstream cultural ideology, and Taoist thought exists only as a supplementary tributary ideology. The great collision of Eastern and Western cultures brought about by the Opium War has caused widespread doubts about Chinese mainstream culture represented by Confucian culture. In the face of the fact that the West is ahead, Chinese people have fallen into unprecedented confusion about their own culture. In 2014, Chinese leaders proposed the concept of Chinese cultural self-confidence, and pointed out that the three sources of Chinese cultural self-confidence are excellent traditional Chinese culture, revolutionary culture, and advanced socialist culture. This article argues that the concept proposed by the Chinese government is not comprehensive for building Chinese cultural self-confidence. Revolutionary culture and advanced socialist culture are the summary of China’s own special experience. Other countries do not have similar environments, and traditional culture is dominated by Confucianism. Confucianism cannot even be fully convinced within China. In the era of globalization, if China wants to gain some value recognition in the world to establish confidence, it must propose a doctrine with global value. I believe that the ideas and philosophies contained in the “Tao Te Ching” can effectively communicate between China and the world, help China gain worldwide recognition, and have great significance for enhancing Chinese cultural self-confidence.

War, this social phenomenon that comes into being as an accompaniment to the private ownership system and that served as the primary form of struggle during the transition from slavery to feudalism, existed over the entire course of the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods. And during the more than two hundred years of the Warring States period, the situation was even more striking, the struggles being especially sharp. New-style iron armaments and other such weapons were invented and employed in large numbers. The scale of war developed from engagements during the Spring and Autumn period where ten thousand troops might be used (such as the battle of P'u-ch'eng) to battles involving several hundreds of thousands of troops (such as the battle of Ch'ang-p'ing). It was precisely during this development of warfare that China's newly emerging landlord class united China in 221 B. G. and completed the transition from slavery to feudalism. During the long wars between the newly emerging landlord class and the decadent slave-owning class of the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, Legalist military thought took shape, and it was an important element in securing revolutionary victory for the newly emerging landlord class.

The Book of Songs ()The Book of Songs, also Shijing or the Classic of Poetry, was the first poetry collection in China, originally known as Shi or Shi 300.It was honored as a classic text in the Western Han Dynasty and was also called one of the Five Classics, together with The Book of Documents, The Book of Rites, The Book of Changes, and The Spring and Autumn Annals.It became important material for later generations to understand early social forms and literary features of China.The Book of Songs, which consists of 305 chapters, originated between the early Western Zhou Dynasty and the middle of the Spring and Autumn Period.

The Book of Songs ()The Book of Songs, also Shijing or the Classic of Poetry, was the first poetry collection in China, originally known as Shi or Shi 300.It was honored as a classic text in the Western Han Dynasty and was also called one of the Five Classics, together with The Book of Documents, The Book of Rites, The Book of Changes, and The Spring and Autumn Annals.It became important material for later generations to understand early social forms and literary features of China.The Book of Songs, which consists of 305 chapters, originated between the early Western Zhou Dynasty and the middle of the Spring and Autumn Period.

This article would like to take a look at the newly excavated Tai Yi Sheng Shui. During the Warring States Period, the Qin and the Han ”Tai Yi” was considered the creator of the universe and the myriad of creatures within. It was the source of ”Li” and ”Yue” in the human realm and also considered the pinnacle of the heavens. Water (Shui) was the first principle of the Daoists. The philosophy of Lao Zi and Zhuang Zi found it's origin in the Huai River region. The Daoist cannon. Guan Zi was influenced by Qu and Sung thinking in taking water as the source of creation. In the Tai Yi Sheng Shui, ”Tai Yi” and water have this necessary connection, the other books of this period don't mention it. The structure, content and thought of the Tai Yi Sheng Shui resembles that of the later Daoist book He Guan Zi. This article would like to discuss the worship of ”Tai Yi”, a special trait of the Daoists in the southeastern regions of Qu and Sung. This is where the Tai Yi Sheng Shui was excavated and is part of this cultures philosophy. This is different from the northern region of Yen and Qi where water was tied in with virtue (De). ”Tai Yi Sheng Shui” lacks any later proponents in the history of Chinese thought. ”Tai Yi” and ”water”(shui) must have been two separate ideas before they came to be the notion of ”Tai Yi Sheng Shui”. Placing the the bamboo texts in the middle of the Warring States period would be too early.

This article discusses the overlap between social history and medical history. The aim is to use the study of medical history to contribute to a better understanding of social history. Five points are discussed: 1. Understanding the body The concept of the circulation of the chi through the living body was central to Chinese medical theory rather than the study of anatomy through dissection. 2. The relationship between those who treated the sick: Shamans, Taoists and Confucians in Chinese history. Before Western medicine was introduced into China, the social background of those who treated the sick was different at different stages of Chinese history. At the earliest stage, before the Warring States, those who treated the sick had much in common with Shamans, from the Warring States until the T'ang Dynasty doctors were usually Taoists, and from the T'ang onward, doctors generally held Confucian beliefs. 3. Sexual health, pediatrics and health care in old age as family history. These include ideas about contraception, pregnancy, ways to influence the sex of a fetus, child-rearing and maintaining health in old age. All these can be seen as aspects of family history. 4. Medicine and cultural influence In this article I concentrate on the Indian influence on Chinese medicine in the medieval period: from the Indian system China only adopted technical skill of ophthalmology and pharmacopoeia. 5. Medical treatment reflecting social mentality I discuss the belief that supernatural beings influenced people's health and the use of methods such as exorcism in treatment.

China created a brilliant material civilization in ancient times, which had a profound influence on neighboring countries and even the world. As it were, the development of ancient material civilization in China is a microcosm of the history of material evolution in the world. It has gone through different stages of cultural relics, such as Paleolithic Age, Neolithic Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age. In different periods of material civilization, ancient Chinese people constantly explored and discovered new materials through their own hands and wisdom. Moreover, we explored the production technology suitable for different materials and utensils, and created many world-leading utensils. Take bronze ware as an example. The casting level of bronze wares in Shang Dynasty has attracted the attention of the whole world. “Simuwu Square Pod” (a cooking vessel in Shang Dynasty) is a typical representative. Judging from the material, volume and weight of its bronze tripod, it is the world’s leading level at that time, so to speak. In the Bronze Age, the existence of utensils was not only the most basic meaning of their use functions, but also the social function of conveying the differences of emperors between Shang Dynasty and Zhou Dynasty. It is a ritual tool for ruling the country and bears the rituals of the Zhou Dynasty. The famous idiom “WENDING ZHONGYUAN (Covet or challenge the throne)” is such an example. It expounds the unique social function of bronze tripod as a ritual tool of ruling a state and it is a tangible symbol of imperial power. In 606 BC, the Zhou Dynasty gradually declined and the Chu State became powerful. Taking advantage of the Northern Expedition, King Zhuang of Chu State asked about the weight of Nine Tripods in the Zhou Dynasty and coveted the throne of the emperor of Zhou Dynasty. King Ding of Zhou Dynasty sent the eloquent Wang Sunmanto confront the King Zhuang of Chu State. When confronting King Zhuang who faces the north, Wang first bypassed the topic of King Zhuang and talked about the age and inheritance of the Nine Tripods. He analyzed the relationship between the weight of Nine Tripods and the virtue obedience of people, and conveyed in a tactful but firm way that the national destiny of Zhou Dynasty was not over yet and the weight of the Nine Tripods can’t be asked, which discouraged the King Zhuang, who then turned to attack Zheng State.

When observing the historical interaction between Confucianism and society, we see the origin of Confucian “learning” that began to take root during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. After Confucianism became the guiding political ideology during the Western Han Dynasty, a new social structure gradually came into being, featuring a close relationship between politics, humanities, rural homeland, and Confucian scholars playing their roles as scholar, official, and landed gentry. This was a rare phenomenon in the history of world civilization. It ensured the political power being handed down peacefully from generation to generation. It also guaranteed equal access to political opportunities, and the establishment of an orderly relationship between politics and culture, as well as between morality and social governance. However, after a century of twists and turns, Confucian scholars and Confucianism lost its way forward and its roots. Fortunately, the last four decades has seen a revival of Confucianism in China. Nonetheless, it still finds itself confronted by many modern-day challenges.

There was a long debate on the question of the study of the Book of Songs. In that debate, there were two main theses. One of them was to revere the study in the Han Dynasty and to follow the point of Mao Heng and Cheng Hsuan then affirming the value of the foreword of the Book of Songs; other one was to revere the study in Sung Dynasty and to follow the point of Chu Hsi then refute the value of the foreword of the Book of Songs. Ku Tungkao was deeply worried about this situation. He comprehend all the theses then write Mao shih ting ku and Mao shih lei shih to the use of correcting the misunderstanding and inducting. These two books plated a carrying on and inspiring role in the study of Book of songs in the early Ching Dynasty. This paper was focused on the analysis of Ku’s study of the Book of Songs to investigate its characteristics, value and influence. There are six chapters in this paper. The first chapter is the introduction to expound the intention to research, the method of research and the commentary on the resent research. The second chapter is the investigation into two points. One is the growing of the study of the Book of songs; other one is the formation of the fashion of textual study. The study of the Book of songs was diversified by these two points. Then, the most important influence of the textual research of the Book of songs was caused by its scholium. This chapter is also the investigation into the importance of the study of things and systems in the early Ching Dynasty for it caused a deep influence of the academic approach in Ching Dynasty. The third chapter is about Ku’s brief biographical sketch, study, literary works, friends and teachers so that we can know more about him and his academic research. In this chapter, the second paragraph is about these two books, Mao shih ting ku and Mao shih lei shih. Through the versions and general form of these two books, I describe Ku’s intension to write; through the analysis of these two books, I understood Ku’s writing method. The forth chapter is about Ku’s explanation method to the Book of songs. It’s about how he quoted many words of others, checked everywhere to find the main point of the Book of songs. In this chapter, I investigated Ku’s point of view about the study of Book of songs in Mao shih ting ku. The fifth chapter is the investigation of Ku’s stubby of things and systems in Mao shih lei shih. He quoted many people’s words to find the true meaning of the Book of songs. His investigation was well-knit and with original discovery. The last chapter is the conclusion. This chapter is about Ku’s research result, academic achievement in the study of the Book of songs and contribution.

This article proposes that the invention of the concept of Spring and Autumn (Chunqiu; ca. 722–481 BCE), the only Chinese historical period named after a text, was neither early nor inevitable. A diachronic analysis of the word chunqiu shows that it began to denote the Chunqiu period in late Western Han (ca. 48 BCE–9 CE). An eschatological prediction in the first century BCE was instrumental in generating this temporal sensibility. Many used the time frame of 242 years with 12 reigns from the Chunqiu, a canonical text purportedly composed by Confucius, to predict that the Han dynasty would soon come to an end. Wang Mang, who overthrew the Han and fulfilled the prophecy, intensified this sensibility. Just as the Western Han was born as a historical period, so was Chunqiu as its historical analogue. Subsequently, historians artificially extended the length of the former to align it with the latter. The emergence of Chunqiu is thus a story about how numerology shaped the interaction between visions of the future and of history, textuality, temporality, political action, classical studies, and historiography in ancient China. The telling of this story complicates our understanding of the history of periodization, a problematic yet essential practice that concerns every historian.

One of the oldest civilizations in the world is located on the plains of China and developed into the period known as Ancient China. One of the dynasties that played a role in the Ancient Chinese period was the Zhou Dynasty (1045-221 BC), which succeeded in overthrowing the Shang Dynasty (1600-1045 BC). Historians say the Zhou Dynasty was very important in Chinese history because it played a major role in the formation of modern-day China. This research aims to understand the development and influence of the Zhou Dynasty on Chinese history, both past and present. This research applies historical methods in the process, as for the stages as follows: (1) heuristics; (2) criticism; (3) interpretation; and (4) historiography. The Zhou Dynasty began with the founding by King Wu Wang after overthrowing the Shang Dynasty. During the passage of time, the Zhou Dynasty implemented a feudal system by giving plots of land to nobles. At the end of the Zhou Dynasty, the nobles rebelled and inter-regional wars led to the collapse of the Zhou Dynasty. Although the Zhou Dynasty had collapsed, the Zhou Dynasty had left legacies, such as: (1) The mandate of heaven (tiānmìng); (2) Fēngjiàn; (3) Confucianism; (4) Taoism; and (5) The Book Art of War.

The contemporary viewpoint of righteousness and benefit, proposed by President Xi Jinping of China in 2013, initially originated from the traditional concept during the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period over 2000 years ago. On the evolution, traditional views are usually individual- and domestic-level based; feudal kings were assumed the subject (dominant stakeholder) of practice with the people objects (passive takers); the subject and object enjoyed a hierarchical relationship in the domestic society. The contemporary concept focuses fully on the international level, viewing Chinese state as the subject and its neighbors (as well as some developing countries) as objects; they maintain an equal relationship in the international community. The upgraded analysis level and the changed subject and object as well as the altered relationship between them drive China’s diplomacy to practice the contemporary righteousness–benefit viewpoint. Nowadays, the group of subject players expanded to include not only Chinese government but also Chinese enterprises, whose responsibilities still need additional clarification. For China case, the government is assumed to take the major responsibility in practicing righteousness, with enterprises for benefit. Subjects and objects enjoy a mutually beneficial relationship with each other; China, as the subject of practicing righteousness, naturally has the expectations to get righteousness in return from the objects. The contemporary viewpoint of righteousness and benefit will work as a practicing guidance to China’s diplomacy, entailing a working mechanism to put it into practice. If implementation of such viewpoint fails to take route, correction mechanism from economic side will be needed as war is not always considered the ideal way.

There were many terms of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in the Confucian Five Classical Canons, such as nue and gu. Among them, nue had the meaning of "sudden disease" or "cold disease" in the Spring and Autumn Period, which were changed to a name of disease, nue disease in the Warring States Period. In the Huangdi Neijing (Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon), there was a special treatise to discuss it. The original meaning of gu was poisonous insect, and then was explicated to a insect causing harm to people. Therefore, gu had the meaning of gathering gu for harming people, gu disease, gu poison and bug in the abdomen. Gu was recorded as a divinatory symbols in the Zhou Yi (The Book of Change), explained as a disease of heart-spirit confusion by later generations. Also, it was recorded in the Zuo Zhuan (The Commentary of Zuo Qiuming) and Huangdi Neijing.

Most primitive religions originated from the devout worship of celestial deities, earthly spirits, and ghosts. In oracle bone inscriptions, rituals related to praying for rain, temple worship, river deity worship, and the worship of great deities were referred to as “fang” 方 or “yi fang” 以方. The Supreme God was the paramount deity of the Yin Shang Dynasty people; by the early Zhou Dynasty, the Supreme God and ancestral spirits began to merge. The hexagram of Contemplation 觀卦 (guan gua) establishes instruction through the concept of “contemplation” fully presenting the entire process of shamans, sorcerers, or ritual hosts participating in temple sacrifices, and completing the hand-washing ritual 盥 (guan) and the sacrifice-offering ritual 薦 (jian). It emphasizes the sincere communication between humans and Heaven. When a monarch performs the guan ritual, he embodies inner “sincerity and clarity” 誠明 (chengming); in response, the celestial deities will “show trust” 有孚 (youfu). Thus, it can be verified that deities exist in Heaven, and an interactive, responsive relationship is formed between Heaven and humans. The nine in the fifth place (the dominant line) possesses great inspiring power. The two fundamental dimensions for interpreting the hexagram structure are “the great view is above” 大觀在上 (da guan zai shang) and “[t]hose below look toward him and are transformed” 下觀而化 (xia guan er hua). These dimensions not only highlight the infinite transcendence, charisma, and appeal of the worshipped deities but also underscore humans’ profound reverence and faith in deities and the absolute existence. Sages 聖人 (sheng ren), as intermediaries between humans and deities, established religion for the sake of human life but did not regard themselves as religious leaders. However, from the Shang and Zhou dynasties to the Spring and Autumn period, a transition occurred in the spiritual life of the Chinese people: from shamanism to ritual propriety 禮 (li), and from theistic culture to humanistic culture. This transition laid the fundamental direction for the development and evolution of Chinese culture over the following 2500 years. Confucius attempted to replace or eliminate the shamanistic elements in early Confucians with personalized moral experience and ethical consciousness.