台灣進口農產品「原產地規則」管理體系之研究

The analysis of the situation and perspectives on food security in Sub-Saharan Africa shows a growing gap between consumption and nutrition needs and food availabilities at the national, household and individual levels. The frailty of gains of productivity in food production and import capacities constitutes a major constraint to the realization of food security in the region. The growth of the agricultural sector becomes the prerequisite for food security improvement. However, the increase in agricultural productivity faces serious natural constraints such as climate contingencies, soil fertility and water control; socio-economic constraints such as the lack of capitalization, institutional weaknesses, lack of rural infrastructure and the frailty of markets and exchanges; and export subsidies from OECD countries. In contrast, the rise of democracy, globalization of the economy and new information technologies and biotechnology constitute major potentials for agricultural production recovery in Africa if states and donors make agriculture a budget priority. The current budget priorities and policies of poverty reduction that put an emphasis on social sectors, environment and political rights of the poor and women could provoke great social demands without creating the economic conditions that permit the economy to respond to these social demands. A strategy of rapid increase in agricultural productivity sustained by market growth and regional trade, the improvement of the land’s agronomic potential and investment in social sectors has the potential to unlock a process of food security improvement in Sub-Saharan Africa. This strategy must be supported by agricultural subsidy reduction measures and the opening of the markets of OECD members to African manufactured products.

Recent trends in farm productivity and food prices raise concerns about whether the era of global agricultural abundance is over. Agricultural R&D is a crucial determinant of agricultural productivity and production, and therefore food prices and poverty. In this paper we review past and present agricultural production and productivity trends and present entirely new evidence on investments in public agricultural R&D worldwide as an indicator of the prospects for agricultural productivity growth over the coming decades. The agricultural R&D world is changing, and in ways that will definitely affect future global patterns of poverty, hunger and other outcomes. The global picture is mixed. In the world as a whole crop yield growth has slowed. In high-income countries productivity growth has slowed significantly, and real spending on agricultural R&D is being reduced. In China, and other middle-income countries, spending on agricultural R&D is being ramped up and productivity growth has not slowed. The overall picture is one in which the middle-income countries are growing in relative importance as producers of agricultural innovations through investments in R&D and have consequently better prospects as producers of agricultural products.

Using district- and regional-level public expenditure data and household-level production data, this paper estimates the agricultural productivity returns to different types of public expenditure across various agro-ecological zones of Ghana. The results reveal that provision of various public goods and services in the agricultural, education, health and rural roads sectors have substantial impact on agricultural productivity. A one percent increase in public spending on agriculture is associated with a 0.15 percent increase in agricultural labor productivity, with a benefit-cost ratio of 16.8. Spending on feeder roads ranks second (with a benefit-cost ratio of 5), followed by health (about one hundredth of the value). Formal education was negatively associated with agricultural productivity. The estimated marginal effects and returns differ for the four agro-ecological zones. Implications are drawn for prioritizing additional or future public resources.

Introduction: Economic effects of membership in the WTO in recent years, has been one of the most important issues for Iranian economy. If Iran joins the WTO, in this process, tariff reduction in agricultural sector will be one of the policies which has to be employed. Therefore, investigating economic effects of tariff reduction or even its elimination in this sector will be necessary in running effective policies to minimize the probabilistic losses of accession. Tariffs on agricultural products in Iran are determined merely on the basis of annual country economy, and have no long term strategy. Government is just obliged to impose effective tariffs on agricultural products imports, in order to protect local productions. On the other hand, according to the census of population and housing, the share of agricultural sector in employment has reduced during the past decade. Moreover, Iran central bank information indicated the reduction in the share of agricultural sector in GDP for the past decade. Declining the share of agriculture in production and employment, considering the high number of university graduates in the field of agriculture along with rising unemployment rate of this group, motivated this study to investigate the effect of tariff reduction in this sector on macroeconomic variables. Materials and Methods: This study analyzed the welfare effects of import tariffs reduction in agricultural sector from Iran most important commercial partners and vice versa, using the Global Trade Analysis Project (GTAP), based on computable general equilibrium (CGE) model. Moreover, the effects of tariffs reduction, is investigated on output, price level and transfer of production factors between different economic sectors. In order to simulate the above model, we used GTAP version 8 which covers 57 commodities and 113 regions with economic information of these regions. This model uses Social Accounting Matrix of countries as data information. Our model includes 3 regions: Iran, ECO and CIS countries as commercial partners of Iran, and the rest of the world, 5 production factors: land, skilled labor, unskilled labor, capital, and natural resources, and finally, 3 production sectors: agriculture, industry, and services. Two scenarios are simulated in this study: first, 50 percent imports value tariff reduction, and zero import tax target rate on intermediate goods for agriculture production in Iran is been considering. For the second scenario, we set a zero target rate for all cases mentioned above. It should be noted that according to Social Accounting Matrix gathered for Iran currently, the average tariff rate on imports of agricultural products from selected commercial partners is 27.67 percent and 7.82 percent from Iran to these countries. Results and Discussion: Results showed that 50 percent reduction in tariffs, increases social welfare, while full elimination of agricultural tariffs leads to a loss in welfare. The welfare analysis illustrated that the efficiency of resource allocation in agriculture sector increased in the first scenario, while in the second scenario, the share of efficient allocation of resources in welfare was negative. Despite equal reduction in tariff rate on the value of imports from these countries to Iran and vice versa, trade balance of Iran has been worse, while it was beneficial for trade balance of her commercial partners. However, agricultural sector had positive share in trade balance of Iran, but the negative effect of industrial sector on trade balance, totally, reduced trade balance of Iran in large quantities. The first scenario increased agricultural production, but increased production was lower in the second scenario..However, the industrial sector production was slightly reduced. On the other hand, more production in agriculture lead more production factors demand, such as skilled and unskilled labors, and capital using in this sector. Moreover, price of production factors has been increased due to increasing demand for these factors. Conclusion: According to our results, 50 percent tariff reduction on agricultural productions imports policy among Iran and her commercial partners will be beneficial for both sides in terms of welfare and agricultural production. However, with this information in hand, full elimination of these tariffs had no positive results. Therefore, policy makers, on the way to join WTO, should impose the policy of 50 percent reduction in tariffs in short time, subject to bilateral agreement. According to the prospect of the accession toward full elimination of agricultural tariffs, to minimize the welfare losses due to it, this is essential to apply other protective strategies such as subsidies and production facilities to intermediate goods producers for agricultural sector.

This study investigation modern sustainable agricultural business model of private farm in Taiwan. Enter the real field, understand the rural environment on the spot, and hope to bring substantial help to the current agricultural environment in Taiwan. Conduct Zhang-Jia farm as the case, based on local ecology, production and life to analyse the management characteristics of the farm. Combine with the theory of ideas explored in the literature to verify the relevance of its actual mode of operation and goals. Observe the local tribal ecology and industrial context to find problems, and compile various conceptual factors that affect the sustainable development of Taiwan's agriculture based on the literature. Through developing organic agriculture, promoting leisure agriculture, developing diversified agricultural products, promoting food agricultural education, and organized production and marketing groups as strategies. Through diversification activities, construct a field environmental relationship brimming with "agricultural production", "peasant life" and "rural ecology", and practice the concept of respect for nature. To maintain the survival of the farm and leave a beautiful homeland, further to increase agricultural production, increase income, maintain natural ecology, create the best areas for farming and living, attract more young people to return to the countryside, and to promote sustainable agriculture in Taiwan.

Agricultural products are the foundation of the people’s survival, and the quality of agricultural products has always been the focus of attention of society and the government; the original agricultural product traceability system is too difficult to tamper with data due to the excessive concentration of data storage, it faces the challenge of fraudulent data tracing, and it is difficult for consumers to trust such traceability results. Moreover, the centralized storage method is not conducive to the centralized management of traceable data from many enterprises, and there will be problems of low traceability and difficulty in government supervision. The emergence of blockchain technology provides a new solution for data security problems of food traceability, its decentralization, anti-tampering and other characteristics and data encryption technology improve the difficulty of data fraud and ensure data security. If the blockchain is combined with the traceability of agricultural products, the safety of traceable data and the tampering of data can be guaranteed to the greatest extent, the producer’s production behavior can be regulated, and consumers’ confidence in food quality can be improved. This paper mainly proposes a framework of agricultural product traceability system based on Hyperledger technology, it uses blockchain to store the traceability data of agricultural products safely, and proposes a traceability model of agricultural products, which can cover the entire industrial chain of agricultural products, and consumers can query the authentic source of traceability of agricultural products [1].

The Republic of Turkey occupies a unique geographical and cultural position at the crossroads of Europe and Asia. Turkey has a total land area of 78 million hectares and a population is about 70 m illion. Approximately one third of the land is arable, and 26 percent of the population lives in rural areas. Since the formation of the modern state of Turkey in 1923, th e economy has been grown rapidly. However, economic growth slowed in the mid-1990s in the wake of a fis cal and monetary crisis. There are wide disparities in income between the more prosperous, industrialized parts o f the country in the west and south-west, and the l ess developed provinces in the rest of Turkey. In 2007, gross national income was USD 5500 per capita. Turkey's economy mostly depends on agricultural sector rather than industry and services. Even Turkish industry is commonly agricultural manufacturing, so economic development of Turkey will pick up speed whenever agricultural development exists in Turkey. Agricultural production has to be raised at least double times in Turkey because of the fast growing populat ion In order to feed fast growing population of Tur key, in recent years, modern agricultural technologies, irr igation systems, environment friendly fertilizers, quality seeds, and agricultural credits has being applied in Turke y's agriculture. All those inputs need to be used b y knowledgeable farmers in order to get sufficient re sults. Turkey's farms have been obtained a family business and small scale. Day to day, youths are not intere sting in agriculture in Turkey as well as like developing co untries. Almost 8 millions employee work in agricul ture and about 60% of them are female in Turkey. In agricult ure, women have been striving the agricultural acti vities and besides their house-works. Women are drawers in agricultural development for Turkey. Whenever the women get good education, they could be affecting her hus band and children. They can also be very sensitive about their agricultural environmental production. The overall objective of this study was to examine factors influencing accessibility of women to Agric ultural Extension Services in Konya. The second purpose of the study was to investigate specific needs and int erests of women.

Assessing the environmental impacts of high-altitude agriculture in Taiwan: A Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) framework and spatial emergy synthesis

Importance in the sustainability of agricultural systems has long been recognized in relation to maintaining and improving agricultural productivity in harmony with the surrounding environment. In many cases, however, the sustainability is discussed rather qualitatively, not quantitatively. This is mainly because of lack of measurable indicators to express the degree of the sustainability in the system. The nutrient is an essential element for the agricultural systems and the appropriate management of such nutrient should be one of the key points for sustainable development of the system. Moreover, the nutrient flow within the system can be quantified at a certain degree and the nutrient budget that is a consequence of balance between input and output may be closely related to sustainability. Optimization of nitrogen cycling in the farm community is considered to be an important aspect as nitrogen is a major nutrient to increase agricultural production. In this paper, a whole picture of the nitrogen cycle for agricultural production that was constructed based on data collected from agricultural statistics, research reports, study reports, field observation, interview with farmers and information from experts, will be presented with particular focus on three areas in the East and Southeast Asian countries such as Shandong province in China, Northeast Thailand, and Mekong Delta. The obtained nitrogen budget is also discussed in order to improve sustainability of the system. Corresponding author: osamuito@jircas.affrc.go.jp Although various types of farming systems can be seen in East and Southeast Asian countries, the dominant systems in the region largely depend on local biophysical conditions, especially climatic factors that most affect agricultural production and can not be modified by the effort of the individual farmer. The agro-ecosystem in the region can be broadly classified into six categories according to the FAO definition as can be seen in Fig. 1. The FAO agro-ecological zoning system is based on simple parameters such as length of growing period, mean monthly temperature and daily mean temperature (Pingali et al, 1997). In this paper, an example of typical farming operation will be picked up from three agro-ecosystems (warm semiarid subtropics with summer rainfall, warm sub-humid tropics and warm humid tropics) and direction of sustainable development of farming systems will be briefly discussed based on research outcomes that have been produced by the projects that the Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS) conducted in the region. Special attention will be placed to analyze agricultural production from the viewpoint of nitrogen flow for its sustainable development. Chapter 1. Sustainable Bioproduction Systems 48 Fig 1 Agroecological zones in south, south east and east Asia (modified from Pingali et al. 1997) Estimation of Nitrogen Flow A whole picture of the nitrogen cycle for agricultural production in three target regions was developed based on data collected from agricultural statistics, research reports, study reports, field observation, interview with farmers and information from experts (Matsumoto et al, 2000, Matsumoto et al, 2003). Nitrogen Flow in Shandong Province in China The first example is from Lingxian County, Shandong Province, China that belongs to warm semiarid subtropics with summer rainfall (Yagi and Hosen, 2000). The intensive upland cropping is dominant with wheat, maize, vegetables and cotton as major crops. The regional analysis of the nitrogen flow indicated an excessive load of nitrogen to arable land and the environment (Fig. 2). The load is mainly due to increasing consumption of chemical fertilizer in addition to increasing manure application. The analysis of nitrogen budget based on statistics suggested that the balance between input and output of nitrogen in arable land was 288 kg N/ha/year in 1997. There was an increasing trend in the nitrogen load; for example, the balance in 1981 was 159 kg N/ha/year that accounted for 55% of that in 1997. Nitrate pollution to groundwater due to excessive application of nitrogen fertilizer should be a major concern in near future, but the present level of nitrate in the groundwater collected from wells is still within the acceptable range, indicating that the nitrate pollution has not been widely spread in the region despite increasing amount of nitrogen application. Warm serniarid tropics Warm subkarmid tropics

It is globally accepted that the agricultural sector is the backbone of every economy. This sector plays a significant role over the course of economic development by contributing a considerable share in the gross domestic product and employment generation. Further, this sector is considered as a herculean weapon to eradicate extreme poverty, food insecurity and poor standard of living particularly in the underdeveloped and developing nations. There are some internal and external forces which have both positive and negative effects on this sector, which includes government policies, environmental condition, population pressure on land, cropping pattern, globalization, international trade and information, communication and technology. Against the above theoretical background, the present study tries to assess the role of ICTs in the development of agriculture in the Union territory of Puducherry, India. In order to execute this study, both primary and secondary data have been used. Secondary data have been collected from the published reports and materials while primary data have been collected from 90 sample respondents from three villages using simple random sampling method. The dataset include socio-economic profiles of the sample respondents and role of television, radio, cell phone, news papers and internet in offering information for the development of agriculture. The study uses simple percentage and Garrett Ranking method to analyze the data. The result of this study shows that television is in the towering position, followed by radio, news papers, cell phone, and internet in generating awareness on suitable input applications like pesticide and fertilizer use, soil quality test, credit opportunities, agricultural prices and cultivation methods. Hence, the study suggests that agro-based programmes should be more effectively relayed through local and national level channels in vernacular language to enhance the agricultural production and productivity.

How smallholders may contribute to food and nutrition security remains a key challenge in many developing countries. Despite being the main rural actors, smallholders are frequently the most food insecure, given an array of biophysical and socioeconomic challenges that were addressed during the workshop. These proceedings discuss the potential role of smallholders in food security and in poverty reduction. The opportunities and constraints are assessed, by analysing the availability, access and utilisation of production factors. The key message is that enhancing smallholders’ production capacities and their economic and social resilience may have a positive impact on food security and nutrition at different levels. However, not all smallholders are the same, and assistance strategies need to differentiate between smallholders who should be ‘moving up’ into more productive systems and those who should be ‘moving out’ of farming. The choice should depend on the type of constraints smallholders face. The analysis considers, in addition to the role of small farmers as food suppliers, smallholders’ role as consumers and their level of nutrition security. The link between agriculture and nutrition is analysed to understand how agriculture affects human health and dietary patterns. Given the importance of smallholdings, strategies to increase productivity in agriculture are essential to improve food and nutrition security, as is food diversity. Finally, synergies and trade-offs between economic, environmental and social objectives and outcomes are analysed through an overview of the methods and tools used to assess food security on small farms at household level. Models at country level are usually focused on long-term conditions, but short-term analyses would also be welcome. Developing global models to assess food security is also relevant, to include trade issues in the analysis. Models at farm household level in developing countries have a valuable role to play in the analysis of the impact of any policy on small farmers.

Shopping for agricultural products on line becomes a new form of consumer's consumption in China. Consumers' satisfaction degree of online shopping for agricultural products directly affects the development of e- commerce of agricultural products. Centering on online agricultural products, referring to relevant literature, basing on survey data of Justeasy, and through statistical analysis this paper found out that consumption concept, products quality, service of website and logistics distribution are the main factors influencing consumer's online shopping intention and satisfaction. Finally, the paper gives some reasonable suggestions to improve consumers' satisfaction degree of online shopping for agricultural products. The government should actively promote the quality traceability system of agricultural products. Online retailers of agricultural products should step up publicity and cultivate consumers' online shopping concept; give reasonable and attractive prices; perfect website design and detail descriptions of goods to enhance attraction and convenience; optimize the distribution system to ensure timely delivery and quality security; and improve after-sales service.

HE PURPOSE of this paper is to report the results of a dynamic regional model of agricultural production response, developed and applied to traditional agriculture, which (1) is based on the already tested notions of economic rationality and price responsiveness in traditional agriculture; (2) incorporates several categories of response forces already studied in the case of developed agriculture; and (3) includes in an essential way the features of subsistence production and household-firm interdependence that are central to the study of production response in traditional agriculture. Specifically, recursive linear programming and activity analysis are used to analyze and simulate the production, consumption, and investment decisions of subsistence farmers in a given region. The result is an improved understanding of the process of agriculture in transition and an operationally tested method for projecting future development. There is growing evidence of the recent transformation of the agricultural sectors of such diverse economies as Israel, Nigeria, West Pakistan, India, the Philippines, Tanganyika, and Thailand [18]. These vast agricultural transformations offer an excellent opportunity to enhance our understanding of the process of development. The purpose of this study was to investigate some of the factors and conditions responsible for one of these transformations, not in its generality, but in great detail. While agricultural development remains at the center of development theory and policy, only recently has attention been given to the empirical investigation of its role in the LDC's. Though some investigations stress the importance of agricultural exports as a point of departure in the LDC's, the more fundamental problems are those associated with agricultural production response, since agricultural exports, whatever their role, cannot increase without an increase in agricultural production. A large part of the empirical work done so far on production response in the LDC's touches on a very important aspect: whether peasants in traditional or near-traditional agriculture respond to market opportunities. These studies have shown that agricultural production of specific commodities in specific LDC's is price responsive, especially when account is taken of adjustment lags due to uncertainty and the quasi-fixity of capital stocks. They show that the form and direction of this response is consistent with price theory, so that we can expect market incentives to play an important role in the transformation of traditional agriculture. These empirical findings clearly refute those who believe that cultural and institutional re-

The paper was created to assess the values and trends for changes in prices of basic agricultural products (produce) and food products on domestic markets that affect the condition of agriculture and agricultural producers. The relationships were evaluated between retail prices of food and prices of agricultural produce, i.e. price scissors, the author studied the strength of impact of procurement prices on retail prices of food (the degree of correlation between prices received by farm producers and prices paid by food consumers), and defined the prevailing directions of change. It was determined through the analysis that the share of the value of agricultural produce in retail prices of an average food basket is decreasing, and the higher degree of processing of produce deepens the disproportion (the gap) between the producer's prices and retail prices paid by consumers. These tendencies, negative for agricultural producers, were supported by analysis of rates of changes of farm produce prices and retail food prices. It was determined on the basis of the trending function that the variations of current prices for all the studied types of farm produce and food products exhibited a long-term increasing tendency, accompanied by seasonal and economic fluctuations. However, the increases of final product prices were in most cases substantially higher than the increases of raw material necessary for its production.

With the developing and deepening of rural reform, it comes to a critical issue that improving farmers' income including agricultural income and non-agricultural income. It can be summarized in five aspects affecting agricultural income: agricultural production price, total sown area of crops, agricultural production material price, agricultural techonology and national finance. Quantitative analysis and grey relational analysis(GRA) are used in the paper. Empirical results show that agricultural production price is the primary factor affecting agricultural income of farmers and the two variables of agricultural production material price and agricultural taxes have significant negative influences on agricultural income. In the current level of economic development, it is a ideal choice to increase non-agricultural income for improving farmers' income significantly.