從粵北英德的“喃嘸”醮儀看民間佛教

Chado, or the way of tea, represents the essential Japanese culture. Based on the Chinese tea culture, Chado undergoes a series of transformation and innovation throughout the history to achieve its unique status today. Each stage of this evolution focuses on different aspects of tea culture, leading finally to the emergence of Chado proper in the Muromachi period.During the Kamakura period, the Japanese tea culture was dominated by the ”monasterial tea fashion” led by Buddhist monks. The key figure of this fashion was Eisai Zenji, or the Zen master Eisai, who studied in China during the Song dynasty. His book, ”Treatise on Tea Drinking for Health”, represented the fruit of the development of Japanese tea culture during this period.Eisai's work is important in three aspects. Firstly, it takes Lu Yu's ”The Tea Classic” as its primary object of emulation. With a slight adjustment of structure, this book nevertheless follows ”The Tea Classic” to delineate all dimensions of knowledge concerning tea. Secondly, it emphasizes the tea's uses of medical and physical care. This function again is first propounded by ”The Tea Classic” and promoted by the tea-drinking habit of Song monasteries. Yet, unlike the tendency of Song monasteries, Eisai's book does not focus on the ritual of tea drinking. Furthermore, ”Treatise on Tea Drinking for Health” highlights the bitter taste of tea, promoting its medical benefits to the human heart. ”The Tea Classic”, on the other hand, emphasizes the interaction among the many tastes of tea, aiming for a balance of different elements. Lastly, the Japanese idea of drinking tea as a care of life ultimately means a way to rid of diseases and dispel evil spirits. This is a distinct line of thinking that arises from the historical background of Eisai Zenji. The tea culture of Kamakura period, generally speaking, originates from China, yet there are still remarkable differences between them. These differences show Eisai Zenji's selective acceptance of Song tea culture, sketch out the background of Kamakura tea culture, exemplify how Zen Buddhist monks connect tea to Zen and thereby establish the direction of Japanese tea culture. Since then, Japanese tea culture steps upon a different path from that of the Chinese pursuit of Taoist way of tea and life.

Initiation rituals which are present in Shingon Buddhism have a lot of similarities with abhiṣekas of Tibetan Buddhism. In esoteric practices of Shingon formal actions as fasting, keeping cleanliness of the body and surroundings, are very important which resemble the necessary behaviour in outer yogas - kriyā and caryā tantra. The initiation steps, especially the higher ones, resemble stages of yoga and anuttarayoga tantra abhiṣekas. Explanation of mandala symbolism in both Buddhist schools is also very much alike. Mandalas are symbols of a transcendent, universal Buddhahood - as a pure universe but also as mirrors of the mind and all activities of consciousness and phenomena. Mikkyō describes the "universal form" of all beings and things in terms of Four Mandalas, which are identical to those found in yoga tantra in Tibetan Buddhism, where Four Mandalas of Body, Mind, Speech and Action are present. Initiation rituals in Shingon are mostly kept secret. Tradition prescribes all details and steps as well as the number of candidates, which often is limited to one, two, four - up to ten. In abhiṣekas granted by Tibetan masters thousands of people often take part, but when ritual is full and all the explanations are given, secrecy is also kept.

The long-standing tradition of mortuary rituals (literally ”rites of merit” or gongde) constitutes one important phase of Taiwanese funeral ceremonies. According to historical records, Taiwanese people have relied on Buddhist or Daoist specialists to preside over such rites. However, recent field investigations reveal the presence of an additional type of specialist that also performs mortuary rites for the general public, namely masters who claim to belong to a religion known as Shijiao (literally ”The Teachings of Sakyamuni”). The Shijiao is a loosely organized religious movement that embraces elements of Buddhism, Daoism, and communal religious traditions. Although the Shijiao has been the subject of several articles, most have focused on its presence in western Taiwan. In contrast, the development of the Shijiao in eastern Taiwan and the general state of its mortuary rituals has received little attention from the scholarly world. To bridge this gap, I have chosen to examine the Ciming Altar of Fengshan Village in Shoufeng Township (Hualien County), and present a detailed account of the various liturgies that constitute the ”midnight” (wuye) mortuary rite. I first define the term ”Shijiao” and delineate this movement's origins, distribution, and sectarian affiliations, in order to clarify aspects concerning the titles, functions, and religious attributes of its specialists. Next, I describe the current state of the Shijiao in Hualien and the development of the Ciming Altar. Additional attention is also devoted to the scale, timing, altar arrangement, participants, musicalinstruments, and costumes of the ”midnight” ritual. The significance of each individual procedure will also be explained.

Many Chinese musicologists believe the exiting Buddhist ritual music in Chinese Han monasteries, as a ”living fossil” of ancient Chinese music, embraces traditional music from Tang and Song Dynasties. In particular, some comparisons have been drawn on the relationship between the zan used in Buddhist ritual and qupai (a fixed melody form) used in operatic singing in order to show the historical significance of Han Buddhist music. Different from pervious research concentrating on historical perspective, the paper focuses on the current practice of Chinese Han Buddhist daily service, its music and context. By using the example of Fuguangsan temple from Taiwan (and the same system applied to its world-wide branches), the paper firstly introduces their educational system and transmission process of Buddhist ritual music, followed by the ”cultural analysis” (suggested by John Blacking) of the music used during Buddhist daily service Unlike other musical analysis of Buddhist ritual in which the structure often is the main attention, the paper expands the discussion from regular melodic chant (such as zan and ji) to non-regular melodic chant or free chanting style (such as jing and zhou). The paper aims to contribute to the scholarly study on the relationship between Buddhist ritual music and its practice, as well as providing in-depth understanding of Chinese free style chanting which has yet thoroughly explored before.

Yin Shun is a leading authority of Buddhist studies with abundant masterpieces of Buddhist thinking handed down to the monks and secular people in modern Taiwan. His concern for the thinking of Lotus Sutra is mainly presented in Convenience Lesson No. 2, ”Since the happiness and intelligence of the various Buddhas are sufficient, it is known that all the phenomena are unchanged and empty, and it is also understood that the seeds of Buddhism are out of fate. Therefore, Buddhist doctrine is the only Buddhist vehicle,” ”Bead Connection Metaphor” of 500 Disciples Record Lesson No. 8, ”Appeared to Become Buddha” of the Dragon Daughter in Devadatta Lesson No. 12, and ”Burning Body as an Offer to Buddha” of Medicine King Bodhisattva's Story in Medicine King Bodhisattva's Story Lesson No. 23. The contents of these doctrines involve what the Buddhist nature is, how to become a Buddha, the process of becoming a Buddha, whether a woman can become a Buddha, and the meaning of Burning Body as an Offer to Buddha during practicing Buddhist rules. All these issues are needed to be further explored.The paper clarifies Yin Shun's viewpoints in his interpretation of Lotus Sutra, and compares his viewpoints to Fa Yun's Lotus Sutra Meanings Record in Liang Dynasty, Zhi Yi's Lotus Sutra Texts and Lotus Sutra Meanings in Sui Dynasty, Ji Zang's Lotus Sutra Discussion, Lotus Sutra Floating Meanings and Lotus Sutra Interpretations in Sui Dynasty, Kui Ji'sPraise to Lotus Sutra in Tang Dynasty, and Jie Huan's Important Interpretations of Lotus Sutra in Song Dynasty. The so-called ”Buddhist nature” is divided into ”understanding of Buddhist nature” and ”exercising of Buddhist nature.” According to Zhongguan Meanings, ”understanding of Buddhist nature” refers that all rules originally have no nature themselves, and their nature is emptiness. As to ”exercising of Buddhist nature,” it is a nature leading to one's being a Buddha after practicing Buddhist scriptures and bearing them in mind. Therefore, for ”the origin of Buddhism being cause,” it refers to ”exercising of Buddhist nature.” As influenced by Nirvana sutra, Zhi Yi proposed three Buddhist-nature causes, and took ”positive Buddhist-nature cause” as the ”original existence of Buddhist nature.” Ji Zang inclined to ”original existence of Buddhist nature.” Kui Ji took the three natures of Master Wei-Shi to explain Buddhist nature, and considered Buddhist nature as ”a circular appearance with solid nature.” Towards the interpretation of ”bead” in ”Bead Connection Metaphor,” YinShun and his followers all suggested that the ”Bodhi heart” developed in the past was a priceless treasure, which was a real fact being as real as an intelligent treasure. ”Appeared to Become Buddha” of Dragon Daughter has its meaning. From ”Viewpoint on Equality of Daoist Instruments,” Yin Shun elucidated that Dragon Daughter's appearance to become Buddha was a ”convenient” saying. The process of cultivating oneself to become Buddha took a very long period of time, instead of being made overnight. Zhi Yi took Dragon Daughter's ”Original Development and Stay in the Heart” to become Buddha. Ji Zang thought that Dragon Daughter became a Buddha extremely rapidly because she supplemented herself and developed her heart all through her life, and this was called the tenth land. Kui Ji thought that perhaps Dragon Daughter supplemented herself and developed her heart all through her life, and that was why she could become a Buddha. Jie Huan thought that becoming a Buddha could be accomplished rapidly, no matter the person was a male or female, old or young, or even a very special person. On the viewpoint of ”Burning Body as an Offer to Buddha,” Yin Shun and his followers all inclined to believe that body burning was a religious behavior of ”ascetics.” Nevertheless, Zhi Yi thought that ”Supporting by New Rules” was a verification of ”empty wisdom.” From the above, we can see the similarities and dissimilarities of interpretation of Lotus Sutra among different major interpreters of the past dynasties.

The contents and form of Taoism had very full of substance and development in Dong Jin and South Dynasty. Taoism had become a religion of complete meaning during this period. Ger Hong、Lu Xiujing and Tao Hung-ching were great masters who had contributed to Taoism in this very important time. Ger Hong established more scholarly theory for Taoism, and he was a comprehensive expression of celestial thought. Lu Xiujing set up dispensation and ceremony for the sake of restraining Taoist believers. Besides and strengthening Taoist organization. Lu Xiujing arranged Taoist scripture and edited the first catalogue of Taoist scripture. Tao Hung-ching made up celestial pedigree，established the initiation of Taoist groups and stood for the religious teachings that blended Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism. The three outstanding great Taoist masters are worth being put on the same platform to investigate. This study compares the three great masters from aspects such as their experiences, learning, manners of spiritual cultivation, Buddhist thinking inclusion and the relation with politics. This study points out that there are similar common features in the three great masters. Furthermore, as regarding the characteristics of the three great masters, Ger Hong is celestial Taoist, Lu Xiujing is Confucian Taoist, and Tao Hung-ching is Political Taoist.

Is playing sports some kind of ritual? In sports we found certain repetitive moves, such as ”free throws” in basketball games, ”ball servings” in tennis, and ”shooting” in archery, but what do all these repetitive, fixed, and technical related moves do? Why do some scholars name these ”repetitive moves” with a religious term ”ritual”? Do raise the national flag or ignite the Olympic torch in sports event also relate to rituals? This research intended to figure out the existence and function of sport rituals, furthermore to find out what content and categories sport rituals contain. Lastly, to identify whether playing sport can be a ritual within life. This paper generally based on the structure of ”Separation-Transition-Incorporation” in ”Rites of passage” by Arnold van Gennep, and following researches done by Victor Turner. From the microscopic view of ”free throw ritual” to the macroscopic view of ”Sport Ritual,” by using the same structure of Separation-Transition-Incorporation, this research examined the impact of ”Liminality” and its insight. This paper reveals the existence of ”The Sport Ritual,” and could be put into two categories, namely ”Ritual of Techniques” and ”Ritual of Culture Representation.” The moves of free throw and shooting can be the examples of the former ritual, while the latter would be raising national flag before the game. Furthermore, The Ritual of Cultural Representation could be recognized as ”Cohesion Ritual,” ”Symbol Ritual” and ”Violence Ritual” etc. The answer to whether playing sport can be a ritual within life is certain; people go to gym regularly just as going to church every Sunday. Though the feeling, place, and content are quite different, but in terms of the rhythm of life and the effect as life rituals like wedding or funeral, playing sport has indeed became new ritual in modern life. The key concept is that through participating sport people can break the social norms and gap between races, culture, age, gender, and social class. Taking Hawaii triathlon for example, people from different ages, races, social status can all attend it. Thus it signifies the value of playing sport.

What is the relationship between locality and globalization? Can locales resist the flow of capital? By using the concept ＂locality at large＂, this paper tries to examine these issues empirically, and tries to shed light on the ＂very big＂ inter-village communal festivals within the Han Chinese folk religion within the modern global arena. Under the nationalist situation and global economy, people tend to think more about the security of their particular place in the world. Places then are the ＂contested terrain of competing definitions＂. Nevertheless, to discuss the contemporary place, we still need to look back at our traditional place. This paper tries to explore the issue of traditional place through a new lens. The ＂Saikang Koah-hiu＂ procession in Southern Taiwan is a very large local festival which involves more than ninety palanquins and troupes. It originated from the terror of floods and plagues in the Tsengwen river area; thus a large inter-village communal ritual cooperation began to emerge. Even the change of regional land measurements and boundary disputes haven’t disrupted this cooperation. Furthermore, historically, the function of conferring a newly emerging village’s authenticity through building up a ＂large communal locality＂ has become crucially important. Once every three years, the ＂Saikang Koah-hiu＂ takes place within a large festival combining several other rituals, including a Daoist ＂Lord offering＂ ritual, a ceremony that emulates etiquette within imperial yamens (higher level government offices), a Boat-burning ritual, and a three-day inter-communitarian territorial procession. During the period of about one week, it is believed that the Jade Emperor sends three of the Gods of Pestilence (among twelve) to ＂Saikang＂ to control pestilence and recover social justice. This festival has continued to be held in this area for more than 200 years. We offer a model, ＂Ecology of Authentification＂, which can explain how a village accomplishes its village production and reproduction through not only political and economic institutions, but also through ＂traditional institutions＂. This model of ＂Ecology of Authentification＂ explains how, under each specific natural and social ecology, a village can attain authenticity through a process of ritual confirmation and public demonstration. The mechanism of the ＂large locality’s＂ conferring function is the special yet typical lesson we learn from the ＂Saikang＂ case. In particular, we offer several parallel concepts to substantiate our analyses: authentification of magic power vs. authentification of the reciprocal side; and master authentification vs. subauthentification. When this ＂large locality＂ enters into the modern national state, there are a lot of confrontations and negotiations. This ＂large locality＂, with its original function of conferring authentification, now plays the role of static and dynamic cultural heritage for the nation-state; and also the possible role of accumulating capital for global capitalists. Within these interstices, the formerly very marginal agricultural region ＂Saikang＂, re-enters as a nexus between the core and the periphery. Finally, we make a comparison between locality, large locality and pilgrimage center, and discuss of how traditional ways of reproducing locality can be relevant to modern nationalist institutions and the global economic system.

”The integration of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism into the interpretation of I-Ching,” as the core idea of Fang Yi-chih's philosophy, emphasized the integration of the various Chinese philosophical schools to ”refine” them into the essence of Chinese thought. Fang Yi-chih, in his ”Refining Chuang-Tzu in the Way of Extracting Herbal Medicine”, employed the method of ”convergence” to ”refine Chuang-Tzu” to emphasize the unity of Chinese thought. Studying ”Chuang-Tzu” from the approach of ”the integration of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism into the interpretation of l-Ching,” Fang completed his academic masterpiece ”Refining Chuang-Tzu in the Way of Extracting Herbal Medicine” in the identity of ”the monk of herbal medicine.” On the one hand, by motivation, he would like to create a new vision for interpreting ”Chuang-Tzu”; on the other hand, he tried to reflect on the transition crisis of the era in which he lived, that is, the crisis of the very moment of political transition from the Ming-dynasty government to the Qing-dynasty government. Converging Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism into l-Ching, Fang Yi-chih showed his duty as an intelligentsia in a chaotic era.

In the development of Chinese stories, there are several themes which represent what people think and wish. After the introduction of Buddhism into China, these themes are reinforced. The ”rescuing-mother” theme discussed in this paper is one of them. This plot has a complete development in the story of Mu Lian 目連, and later on continued to show in the stories of White Snake（白蛇）and Shen Xiang（沈香）, only with some alterations. In other words, although all three stories share the same plot of ”rescuing-mother,” the differences in the ways of rescuing, roles and status of the son make them different. This paper adopts what Alan Cole mentions in ”Mothers and Sons in Chinese Buddhism” that the obedience children pay to their parents is different in Confucianism and Buddhism. Buddhism requires sons to have a guilty conscience toward their mothers by imparting in them the ideas of ru-en 乳恩 (breastfeeding) and sheng-zhai 生債 (debt). Therefore, the obedience in Buddhism is mainly towards mother, which is quite different from what we find in Confucianism where obedience has everything to do with father. In Buddhism, because of the process of birth is seen as unclean, mother becomes the un-pure object in need of rescue, this increases the son's sense of duty and the need to rescue mother from suffering. Seeing from this perspective, ”rescuing mother” at first tended to be a religious redemption and an escape from son's guilt in putting his mother in such a situation. This is seen especially in the story of Mu Lian. Afterwards, the ”rescuing mother” in Buddhism began to mingle with that of Confucian ideas. We see in the story of White Snake that the rescuing of mother by son has to rely on the political and bureaucratic achievements and eventually on the emperor's permission. This is the first change. Another change came form the influence of Daoism as in the Shen Xiang story where human and god are merged and the son can challenge gods in order to rescue his mother.

A sectarian interpretation of the rise of Mahayana

This article deals with the text of an important commentary of Laozi in the early Tang Dynasty by Li Rong. We shall analyze the academic position of the commentary and discuss the epistemological and ontological understanding found in this double-negation school writing. We shall deal with three important issues: the Dao discourse (including double-negation discourse), the self-cultivation discourse, and the governing discourse. We will attempt to answer a number of important questions. First, what was the starting point for Li Rong's double negation thinking? Second, what is the ultimate meaning of double negation in Li Rong's work? Third, what does Li Rong mean by the concept of the ”void and ultimate origin” (虛極之理)? Fourth, how does Buddhist thinking influence Li Rong's double negation? Finally, how does the divine differ from and interact with the secular? The core thesis will dwell on the concept that the ideal and sacred order fuses with the practical and secular order by way of the thinking of double negation. The ideas of mind (心) and essence or nature (性) - acknowledged as the essence of Dao (道性) in Li Rong's commentary will also be important concerns in this paper. The paper will also touch upon some other important issues. First, it will explore the relationship between the Daoist School, Confucian School and Buddhism during the Han dynasty, Wei-Jin era and Sui-Tang era. Second, the hierarchy of the political and religious affairs will be expounded on. This will be followed by discussion on the body and the state, looking at whether the physical or mental should be emphasized, body formation in the state building process, and the Buddhist influenced interpretation of Laozi. The ”Laozi Commentary by Li Rong” reflects the political and religious situation at the time and conveys the internal essence of the political discourses of Daoism, the Confucian School, and Buddhism on the Daoist religion. Undoubtedly this writing itself is a part of the process of state formation or building and the result of the dominance of political power during the Tang dynasty.

Quan Zhen Taoism claims its pluralism of doctrines and the combination of the three religions to one. It explains its Quan Zhen of Humanity and Destiny. Its thought inherits the Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism partly, which acquires the thoughts of the three religions to deal with the problems the intellectuals feel when the country is defeated and the home lost. The thesis discusses mainly on Zen ideology's effect on Taoists of early Quan Zhen Taoism, such as Wang Chongyang, Ma Yu, and Qiu Chuji, and hackles on this base their characteristics of combining Zen ideology.

Ruan De-Ru and Ji Kang's four articles around ＂Health Theory of Houses Having no Good Luck or Bad Luck＂ are the longest and the most controversial ones among Ji's argumentative discourses. Diverse definitions of the debate's two sides blur Ji's role in the history of Wei and Jin Dynasties Daoist metaphysics. This paper first scrutinizes Ruan and Ji's poems with their mutual concern ＂health preservation＂ as the focus. The core of the argument is not social customs but different understandings of the health preservation issue. Ruan emphasizes self-cultivation and opposes houses' luck, and Ji further integrates them with the idea that the environment can assist self-cultivation. Ruan's and Ji's thoughts are in different levels, but both of them are products of health preservation philosophy and Ji's development from ＂self-sufficient inside to ＂qi throughout inside and outside.＂ Only by observing the two sides and revealing their advantages can readers witness Ji's genius of leading different aspects into one direction in his ＂Health Preservation Theory.＂ Therefore, Mou Zong-San's hypothesis that Ruan's thought is Ji's thought is probably partially correct, but it should be established on Ji's thought of converting from the static sense to the dynamic subject in the form of qi. Owing to Tang Yong- Tong's widely accepted view, Ji Kang's natural qi view is often considered a residue of the cosmic view in the Han Dynasty. With the perspective this study presents, Ji Kang's thought is no longer framed as the second stage of Wei and Jin Dynasties discourses about existence and nonexistence and ritual teachings, but becomes a new role expanded more completely in the history of Wei and Jin Dynasties Daoist metaphysics.

The purpose of this study is to find out the elements of Philosophical Antropology in Chinese Philosophy and its controbution to improve the quality of human resource in relation to clarify and to enrich the matter of this subject, which usually more emphasized on Western philosophy than Eastern philosophy. The research was conducted by studying literature and data collected from primary and secondary source, which have been published or not. Hermeneutics theory, comparative study, and interpretation method were used in the analysis of the data collected. Conclusion are made base on logical thinking. The result of this work is that elements of Philosophical Antropology in Chinese Philosophy could be analyzed from the philosophy of Confucianism, Legalism, Buddism, and Taoism. Confucianism concered on human nature, existence, and dimensions, which consist of social, cosmic, transcendental, and historical dimensions. Legalism emphasized every human being have Buddha nature, while Taoism advised life in harmony with the nature like a yin yang principles. In improving the quality of human resource showed that everyone can be developed through education and environment. Creative thinking and working culture are necessary to improved in achieving the quality of work life.