復社前後：晚明以降文人對盟社的反思

The relationship between Chenghuang Temple and affiliated Garden is a representative urban historical public space in Shanghai, which is more typical in Qingpu. A large number of Chenghuang Temple and affiliated gardens were built in Qingpu during the Ming and Qing dynasties, of which two Chenghuang Temple and affiliated gardens in Qingpu County and Zhujiajiao Town are the most famous. The construction process of temples and gardens in both regions has gone through twists and turns, and there are many similarities: from the beginning of construction in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, to the destruction caused by war during the Xiantong period, as well as the reconstruction during the Guangxu period, and the new development in contemporary times. With the social change and the development of the times, the space and landscape of the Chenghuang Temple and affiliated garden in the two places have changed one after another, the relationship between affiliated garden has also changed, and the interactive relationship with the urban space has also been reconstructed. This paper focuses on the development of temples and gardens in Qingpu County and Zhujiajiao Town after the Ming Dynasty, and conducts a comparative study of the two from the aspects of historical changes, temple patterns, garden layout and the relationship between temples and gardens. By analyzing the diachronic changes of the landscape space and social functions of temples and gardens, it reveals the transformation of the relationship between temples and gardens with social change, and the construction process of the interactive relationship between urban historical public space and cities such as Chenghuang Temple and affiliated Garden.

In the field of the pictorial decoration of Chinese architecture, the decor of the period of the Ming and Qing dynasties is considered the most outstanding since, at that time, the technique was perfect, and the methods of decoration were rich in their diversity, which was not possible in previous eras. The polychrome painting of official buildings during the Ming and Qing dynasties’ reign is quite different from the Song dynasty’s polychrome painting. The transition from the Song dynasty’s polychrome painting to the Ming and Qing dynasties’ polychrome painting was completed during the Yuan dynasty’s reign. Due to the decrease of dougong in size in the Ming dynasty, polychrome painting began to be placed on beams. Xuanzi polychrome painting, which originated from painting beams under the Yuan dynasty, became the primary type. By the Qing dynasty, Hexi polychrome painting and Suzhou polychrome painting, which evolved from the folk polychrome painting of the Jiangnan region of the Ming dynasty, appeared. The Xuanzi type was one of the three main polychrome painting types in the Qing dynasty. It was fully developed compared to the Hexi type as it was used more widely. The article explains the development of the artistic features of the various decorative parts of Xuanzi polychrome painting during the Ming and Qing dynasties, the characteristics of each gradation, and the method of distinguishing it, as well as its place of application.

In the late Ming Dynasty, a family of the Po, who was a Mongolian military officer, emerged in Xuanfu. At first, they served as “Yi Ding(Tatar Soliders)” in Jiubian(nine-frontier fortification system of the Ming Dynasty). Unlike the Mongolians who joined the Wei Suo system in the early Ming Dynasty, the Po family served as private armed servants of Ming Dynasty border defense generals. They not only serve as frontline soldiers for border defense generals, but also serve as Mongolian language translators for them. In short, they have a lot of effectiveness.At the same time, they were incorporated into the military status of the garrison in Xuanfu, and became officials in the camp step by step from the positions of garrison and guerrilla.Its members took part in a series of eastern expeditions and western wars in the late Ming Empire, such as the Imjin War, and participated in the battles of Jigsan and Ulsan to expel the Japanese army, while the father and son of Pou Tingxiang participated in the war between the Ming Dynasty and the Later Jin Dynasty and sacrificed their lives on the battlefield. After the change of Dynasties in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the members of the Po family chose to become officials in the Qing Dynasty for the sake of family interests, and tried to let the next generation continue to engage in the army and maintain their glory. However, due to the collapse of the former Ming Dynasty’s military officer system, the Qing Dynasty’s vigilance against the former Ming Dynasty’s generals, and the characteristics of the Qing Dynasty’s military system and military officer system itself, the Po family did not get the same position of power as the former Ming.In the end, like other generals on the Jiubian(nine-frontier), the former Ming generals, who were born as adherents, gradually withered away in the Qing Dynasty.

There were systems of Mang robes both in Ming and Qing dynasties. However, they differ greatly in style although they have got the same name. A Mang robe in Ming Dynasty has big and wide body and sleeves, the same style as that of Han nationality. But the Mang robes of the Qing Dynasty bear the features of typical nomadic style with turtle neck, buttons on the right side, and horse-hoof sleeves. Although the Qing Mang robe system is from the Ming dynasty, only those external ornaments that can be accepted by the rulers remain. Rulers of Qing Dynasty believed that ornaments were only used to decorate the garments and there was no need to rigidly adhere to the external form.

This study aims to examine the manner in which Yi Gyu-gyeong(李圭景, 1788-1856) assimilated and systematized Chinese graphological knowledge by analyzing the materials related to Chinese graphology contained in Oju Yeonmun Jangjeon Sango(五洲衍文長箋散稿) and investigating the patterns of cited works therein. To this end, the main body of this study first explores the content and structural composition of Oju Yeonmun Jangjeon Sango to clarify the author's intent in its compilation. Subsequently, it scrutinizes the specific content and methodological approach employed in the presentation of materials related to Chinese graphology, thereby evaluating the process through which such knowledge was compiled. Finally, it delineates the distinctive characteristics of the works cited within the realm of Chinese graphology. These findings may be summarized as follows: First, while Yi Gyu-gyeong primarily referenced graphological texts from the Qing dynasty, he also extensively cited works from the Song and Ming dynasties. Notably, the most frequently referenced texts include Yang Shen(楊愼)’s Danyan Zonglu(丹鉛總錄) and Sheng’an Ji(升菴集) from the Ming dynasty, as well as Gu Yanwu(顧炎武)’s Rizhilu(日知錄), spanning the Ming and Qing dynasties. Second, Yi Gyu-gyeong incorporated numerous Korean sources into his work, the most frequently cited among them being Cheongjanggwan Jeonseo(靑莊館全書), a compendium encompassing a wide array of scholarly knowledge and materials, authored by his grandfather, Yi Deok-mu(李德懋). Third, beyond these principal sources, he drew upon a diverse range of texts of varying scope and content, thereby engaging in extensive discourse on multiple facets of Chinese graphology. Fourth, his engagement with Chinese graphology also extended to the inclusion of Japanese texts, such as Wakan Sansai Zue(和漢三才圖會) and Nenroku(蔫錄), as well as records of Korean diplomatic missions to Japan, including Haedong Jegukgi(海東諸國記) and Haeyurok(海遊錄). These citations suggest a keen interest in Japan and indicate a broadly receptive stance toward Japanese scholarship.

Classical Chinese literature exerts a powerful hold on readers and writers in later periods. The question of how earlier literature was preserved, classified, anthologized, and distributed is vital for understanding how authors defined their creative and interpretive endeavors during the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties. Printing expanded, with a dramatic increase in numbers and variety in the sixteenth century. For many of the texts discussed in our volume, the earliest extant editions or reconstituted versions date from the Ming dynasty, and many important commentaries and annotations were produced during the late imperial period. Encyclopedias and collectanea show how tradition is repackaged. Political legitimation is bound up with state-sponsored comprehensive collections and encyclopedias. Anthologies of earlier literature and commentaries on them yield insights into literary trends in later periods. Primers and textbooks demonstrate the role of classical literature in acquiring basic linguistic and literary competence.

Background During the Ming and Qing dynasties, as a mature period of traditional Chinese society, the education system dominated by the imperial examination system deeply penetrated the social fabric. Existing research mostly focuses on explicit issues such as the evolution of the education system and cheating in the imperial examination system, with insufficient empirical research on its value shaping and psychological impact, and a lack of quantitative support. The study focuses on the Ming and Qing imperial examination archives, local chronicles, and literati diaries as core historical materials, combined with quantitative statistics and text analysis methods, to explore the mechanism of the impact of educational content and form on social core values and group psychology, aiming to provide a new perspective for exploring the modern value of traditional education. Methods The study selected local chronicles from 286 counties in 13 provinces during the Ming and Qing dynasties, 432 imperial examination answer sheets, 156 literary diaries, and 307 family education records as research samples, including different educational levels and regions. Using content analysis method to encode core textbooks and answer texts such as "Annotations to the Four Books, Chapters and Sentences," and extract values keywords; Use historical demographic methods to analyze the correlation data between sample education level, occupation, and social behavior. The study first uses bibliometric methods to screen representative historical materials, removing non first-hand materials with a credibility of less than 85%; Then use Nvivo software to encode the values dimension of the text; Finally, correlation analysis was conducted using SPSS to explore the correlation between education years, scores of various values, and psychological representations. Results Data shows that among those who receive systematic Confucian education, 83% of respondents list "loyalty to the monarch and filial piety" as their core values, which is much higher than the 21% of those who have not received formal education; There is a significant positive correlation (r = 0.76, p<.01) between the length of education and the value of valuing righteousness over profit. The score of this dimension is 2.3 times higher for the Jinshi group than for the Tongsheng group. On a psychological level, the frequency of scholars and above mentioning adversity and striving in their diaries is 3.1 times higher than that of young students per year, and the frequency of expressing anxiety about fame and achievements in the juren class is 1.8 times higher than that of the Jinshi group. Discussion The research results indicate that traditional education has a strong shaping power on social values, and the cultivation model of both morality and talent has reference significance for contemporary moral education. Psychological phenomena such as fame anxiety provide a historical mirror for modern education pressure relief. The limitation of this study lies in the insufficient attention paid to folk education forms such as private schools, free schools, and clan education in the Ming and Qing dynasties. Future research can explore the value transmission path of grassroots education by sorting out first-hand materials such as local clan account books and private school teaching logs.

명 태조 주원장(朱元璋)은 정권을 공고히 하고 사상을 통제하기 위해 유가의 도통과 정주이학(程朱理學)을 제창하면서 사서(四書) 오경(五經)을 기반으로 한 과거제도 시스템을 구축했다. 성화(成化) 이후 팔고문의 형식이구체화되면서 팔고취사제(八股取士制)가 실질적으로 시행되었다. 따라서 유학의 경의(經義)는 국가가 정해준 지식의 범주였고, 팔고문은 제도의 문체이자 지식인들의 글쓰기 방식이었다. 이처럼 팔고취사제와 사서오경은 명 청시기 약 500여 년 동안 고대 중국의 취사(取士) 시스템이자 관방 지식의 토대가 되었다. 팔고문은 제도의 문체이자 지식이므로 제도적 문학적 측면에서 ‘제도와 지식인’의 상관성을 연구하는 데 중요한 연구 대상 중의 하나이다. 제도적 측면에서는 팔고취사제를 통한 과거시험의 내용과 팔고문 형식을 살펴보고,문학적 측면에서는 팔고문 창작과 문풍 폐단 및 지식인과 제도의 관계 등에 대한 분석이 필요하다. 본고에서 제도와 지식(인)의 범주에서 ‘제도-지식인-지식’이란 틀로 분석하고자 하는 이유이다. 본고는 제도와 지식(인)이라는 범주에서 ‘제도[과거제도]-지식인[사인]-지식[팔고문]-문풍’의 틀 위에서 명대 과거제도와 팔고취사제, 지식인의 팔고문 창작, 문풍(文風)의 폐단 등을 분석하고자 한다. 주요 내용은 크게 과거제도와 팔고취사제, 팔고문의 특징과 사례, 제도와 문풍의 폐단, 제도와 지식인 상관성 등 네 부분으로 나누어 살펴본다. 이 과정에서 명대 팔고취사제와 지식의 범주, 지식인의 시문(時文) 창작, 폐단과 원인 및 제도와 지식(인)의 상관성에 대한 분석이 이루어질 것이다.In Ming Dynasty, to consolidate political power and control thought, Zhu Yuan Zhang (Taizhu),the Emperor, promoted confucian orthodoxy and Cheng Zhu Li xue (程朱理學), and then workedout Imperial Exam system based on Four Books and Five Classics (四書五經). After the ChengHua (成化) period, the form of Ba Gu Wen (eight-part essays) was embodied and Ba Gu Qu Shi(八股取士制, a system that selects officials according to imperial exam) system was implemented. Accordingly, Confucian classics argumentation (經義) was nationally prescribed as the category ofknowledge for the exam and Ba Gu Wen the writing style, which then became writing style forthe intellectuals. In this way, Ba Gu Qu Shi (八股取士制) and Four Books and Five Classics (四書五經) became the foundation for officials selecting system and officially prescribed knowledge forabout 500 years in Ming and Qing Dynasty in ancient China. Therefore, Ba Gu Wen (八股文) then became official writing style and that of the intellectuals, and study on Ba Gu Wen (八股文) needs study on relationship between system and intellectualsin terms of national system and literature. In the aspect of national system, we should examinethe contents and form of Ba Gu Wen that was adopted for imperial exam (for officials selection)and, in the aspect of literature, we should analyze creation of Ba Gu Wen, negative effects of theliterary spirit, and relationship between the intellectuals and national system. This paper would like to make an analysis on the system of imperial exam, officials selectionsystem according to Ba Gu Wen exam, Ba Gu Wen writing by the intellectuals, negative effectsof such literary spirit, etc. in Ming Dynasty with the frame of ‘national system (imperial examsystem) - intellectuals (members of the literary groups (societies)-knowledge (Ba Gu Wen) -literary spirit’ within the category of national system and knowledge (intellectuals). Main contents should roughly be the system of imperial exam, characteristics and examples ofBa Gu Wen, negative effects of the national system and literary spirit, and relationship betweennational system and intellectuals, which forms four parts. In this process, we should analyze theofficials selection system according to imperial exam, category of knowledge for the exam, BaGu Wen writing by the intellectuals, negative effects and the cause, and relationship between the national system and knowledge (intellectuals).

The chapter heading for chapter fictions in Ming and Qing Dynasties is an important part of the novel and has distinct characteristics. The main manifestations are as follows: First, the language is concise and clear. Second, the syntactic structure is fixed. Third, it covers the elements of people, things, and verbs. In the process of translating the chapter fictions in Ming and Qing dynasties, translators need to master the characteristics of the chapter fictions in Ming and Qing dynasties, effectively and skillfully use parts of speech conversion, amplification and omission and attach importance to the translation of adverbs in chapter fictions. The translation of chapter fictions in Ming and Qing Dynasties will be more in line with their own characteristics and more accurate through the mastery and use of these translation techniques.

This paper aims to examine in detail the Christian interpretations on the Confucian concept of the nature of the heaven’s mandate [天命之性] during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from historical and textual perspective. Neo-Confucians of the Song Dynasty interpret the nature of the heaven’s mandate as human nature, believing that heaven endowed humans with reason, known as the heavenly principle [天理]. In the late Ming period, Christian missionaries such as Jesuits in China used Confucian classics to convey Christian thoughts, interpreting the heaven’s mandate as God’s mandate and the nature of the heaven’s mandate as the spirituality bestowed by God, which is equated with the soul. They also used the nature of the heaven’s mandate as a criterion for determining the authenticity of a teaching (religion[教]), asserting that Christianity is the true teaching (religion). Thus, Christianity in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties provides a new interpretation on the nature of the heaven’s mandate and promotes the integration of Christian and Confucian thoughts through this interpretation.Contribution: The paper provides a detailed review of the history of Christian interpretations on the nature of the heaven’s mandate during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. Currently, there is limited scholarly research on the theological thoughts of Christianity during this period. This study not only enhances the understanding of the new interpretations by Christianity but also aids in comprehending the theological ideas of Christianity during the late Ming and early Qing periods. By reinterpreting Confucian classics, Christianity endowed them with new meanings, offering valuable references for the localisation of Christian theology and the study of cross-cultural exchange.

During the Ming Dynasty, the Five-Dragon Palace functioned as a royal Taoist temple set atop one of China’s holiest Taoist mountains, Wudang Mountain. Two tower polychrome sculptures with exquisite craftsmanship have remained over the centuries. In this study, the painting materials and the techniques used to construct these sculptures were analyzed through multiple characterization methods, including optical microscope (OM) observations, micro-Raman spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy–energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM−EDS), X-ray diffraction (XRD), micro-Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (μ−FTIR), and pyrolysis–gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (Py−GC/MS). The results revealed that the pigments used in these sculptures included red pigments, which were composed of mercury (II) sulfide (cinnabar or vermillion), minium (Pb3O4), and hematite (Fe2O3); green pigments, which included atacamite and botallackite (Cu2Cl(OH)3), and blue pigments, which comprised smalt (CoO·nSiO2) and azurite (Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2). The white base layer was composed of quartz and mica minerals combined with gypsum or plant fiber, and the gold foil was adhered to the surface using heated tung oil. In addition, a special multi−layer technique was applied, with red under the golden gilding, white under the blue layer, and gray and black under the green layer. Drying oil was used as a binder for lead-containing pigments. This study offers substantial proof of reliable techniques to use in the continuing conservation of these sculptures, and it also serves as a foundation to determine if they can be dated to the late Ming or early Qing Dynasty (17th century).

Similar to that in the Ming dynasty, Sanqu in the Qing dynasty was already the creation of the literati but not that of the folks. The Northern and Southern tunes in the Ming dynasty were still the same thing as “Ci in the Southern Song dynasty,” though at its old age, could still exist, be popularized and sung in the folk. While Sanqu in the Qing dynasty was something like “Ci in the Ming dynasty,” with a few exceptions, most of the Northern and Southern tunes could not be played and sung and popularized in the folk. The spirit of the Sanqu authors was not the same bold and generous as that in the Yuan and Ming dynasties. It either tended to be sharp and fresh, struggling between the words and sentences, or to be restrained by the meters, becoming a lifeless living corpse.

The study of ancient settlements in the traditional waterside towns of Jiangnan is an important part of scientific research on architectural heritage. This study examines ancient settlements in the Nanxi River Basin during various historical periods, such as the Neolithic Age, Eastern Han Dynasty, Tang-Five Dynasty, Song-Yuan Dynasty, Ming Dynasty, and Qing Dynasty. It investigates their temporal and spatial evolution and the factors that influence their distribution, with a particular focus on the role of intangible cultural heritage. This study focuses on the relationship between the spatial evolution of traditional waterside settlements in the Nanxi River Basin and the distribution of intangible heritage and analyzes the driving factors of their development. How settlements changed over time and space was examined with geographic information systems (GIS) software and by using kernel density, elliptical variance, and spatial autocorrelation methods on 204 ancient settlement points. This study also employs buffer and data overlay methods to analyze the factors that affect settlement distribution by elevation, slope, water system distance, and distance to intangible cultural heritage points. The study reveals the following. (1) During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, clans, culture, and the economy drove the expansion of early settlements, which relied on water systems and flat terrain, to form a multicenter distribution. (2) The settlement distribution in the Nanxi River Basin has undergone a transformation from single-point distribution to multipoint aggregation and divergence during the evolution from the Neolithic Age to the Qing Dynasty. The overall center of gravity of the settlements shifts from south to north and east, and the overall distribution of the settlements is in a state of aggregation. (3) The spatial and temporal evolution of settlements is jointly influenced by the natural environment and cultural factors. The natural environment determines the spatial distribution of early settlements, while cultural factors promote the evolution and development of the settlement space. This study further clarifies the key role of intangible cultural heritage in the formation and development of settlements and provides a reference framework for future heritage protection policies.

As a common cultural phenomenon in China and the West, alchemy not only embodies the scientific spirit of people before modern times, but also contains certain religious beliefs, and even creates unrealistic secular imaginations. When Catholicism entered China during the Ming and Qing dynasties, the Chinese also projected this imagination of alchemy onto the missionaries. Behind this imagination actually lays the strong interest of Chinese people in the financial resources of the missionaries. On the one hand, there is the historical influence of traditional Chinese alchemy, and on the other hand, there is the curiosity caused by the lifestyle of missionaries in China. The imagination of alchemy not only reflects a historical aspect of the encounter between China and the West during the Ming and Qing dynasties, but also reflects a complex social psychology of mixed curiosity, panic, suspicion, and vigilance in pre-modern China.

At the turn of the Ming (1368-1644) and the Qing (1644-1911) dynasties, playwrights of the Soochow school created many scripts of high drama. Among them, the legend Qianzhong lu, a story based on the life of Emperor Hui (Jianwen) of the Ming dynasty, made Kunju Opera popular and encouraged Qing dynasty playwrights to write more Chuanqi stories on Emperor Hui of the Ming dynasty.Emperor Hui's whereabouts has become a mystery ever since Emperor Chengzu of the Ming dynasty (r. 1403-1424) ascended the throne. Emperor Hui died in conflagration when Emperor Chengzu launched the ”Battle of Jingnan.” However, Emperor Hui's body was never found (or the body could not be identified). Therefore, it was rumored that Emperor Hui somehow escaped the carnage. This unsolved mystery still resonates to this date.At the turn of Ming to Qing, playwright Li Yu and his colleagues used the story of Emperor Hui to remind people that they should still be loyal to the Ming throne. However, the present author believes that this is a reflection of diaspora among the former Ming officials.For Emperor Hui, the final destination was to return to his homeland. To Li Yu and his fellow playwrights, to find a home for their souls were the wishes of all dissipates.On the basis of this theory, we find more depth into the diaspora narrative by the Soochow school playwrights. The present article attempts to reconstruct its multi-faceted implications from the diaspora narrative perspective.