3D printing technologies for electrochemical energy storage

Three‐dimensional (3D) printing, a layer‐by‐layer deposition technology, has a revolutionary role in a broad range of applications. As an emerging advanced fabrication technology, it has drawn growing interest in the field of electrochemical energy storage because of its inherent advantages including the freeform construction and controllable 3D structural prototyping. This article focuses on the topic of 3D‐printed electrochemical energy storage devices (EESDs), which bridge advanced electrochemical energy storage and future additive manufacturing. Basic 3D printing systems and material considerations are described to provide a fundamental understanding of printing technologies for the fabrication of EESDs. The performance metrics of 3D‐printed EESDs are then given and the related performance optimization strategies are discussed. Next, the recent advances of 3D‐printed EESDs, including sandwich‐type and in‐plane architectures, are summarized. Conclusions and future perspectives with some unique challenges and important directions are then discussed. It can be expected that, with the help of 3D printing technology, the development of advanced electrochemical energy storage systems will be greatly promoted.

Electrochemical energy storage (EES) and conversion devices (e.g. batteries, supercapacitors, and reactors) are emerging as key components in the global effort to increase the use of sustainable and renewable resources. These devices, while showing great potential for meeting some key metrics set by conventional technologies, still face significant limitations. For example, an EES device tends to exhibit large energy density (e.g. lithium-ion battery) or power density (e.g. supercapacitor), but not both. This inability of a single device to simultaneously achieve both metrics represents a major obstacle to widespread adoption of EES devices. Similarly, many catalytic processes depend on expensive platinum group metals (PGM) because non-PGM materials have poor performance or durability. The use of nanocarbons (e.g. graphene, carbon nanotubes, fullerenes, graphidyne, etc.) in electrochemical devices has been a promising approach to improving EES device performance due to their high surface area, electrical conductivity, and lightweight, however significant advancements are still needed. Carbon alone tends to be limited in its energy density so, frequently, surface functionalization or the incorporation of other materials (e.g. MnO2, Li, NMC, etc.) are necessary to reach required energy density goals. Furthermore, some porous carbons are mechanically fragile, making their use in coin cell and pouch cell assemblies difficult. Finally, utilizing carbons in advanced EES designs that require additive manufacturing (AM) can be challenging because AM-compatible carbon feedstock material is readily not available. In this work, we explore a number of approaches to boost the energy density of carbon-based EES devices, improve the mechanical integrity of carbon-based electrodes, and explore various AM methods (e.g. direct ink write, projection microstereolithography, etc.) to engineer the pore structure of carbon-based electrodes.This work was performed under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Energy by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory under Contract DE-AC52-07NA27344.

Electrochemical energy storage (EES) and conversion devices (e.g. batteries, supercapacitors, and reactors) are emerging as primary methods for global efforts to shift energy dependence from limited fossil fuels towards sustainable and renewable resources. These devices, while showing great potential for meeting some key metrics set by conventional technologies, still face significant limitations. For example, an EES device tends to exhibit large energy density (e.g. lithium-ion battery) or power density (e.g. supercapacitor), but not both. This inability of a single device to simultaneously achieve both metrics represents a major obstacle to widespread adoption of EES devices. Similarly, many catalytic processes depend on expensive platinum group metals (PGM) because non-PGM materials have poor performance or durability. Though the integration of 2D materials (e.g. graphene, dichalcogenides, MXene, etc.) into electrochemical devices has yielded some exciting results towards tackling these issues, significant improvements are still needed. One approach to optimizing the performance of these devices is to focus on one of the fundamental processes that occur in these systems: mass (or charge) transport. The efficient transport of ions within EES and conversion devices is critical to realizing better performance and durability. The pore structure of the electrode is a key factor in determining this transport phenomena, but in many cases, engineering the pore structure in a highly deterministic fashion can be challenging. In this work, we explore a number of additive manufacturing methods (e.g. direct ink write, projection microstereolithography, etc.) to engineer the pore structure of device electrodes. We also determine effective electrode geometries using both simple theory and topology optimization techniques. The topology optimization couples the solution of the forward electrochemical problem over the full electrode domain with gradient-based optimization. The output of our code is a three-dimensional CAD representation which optimizes over specific performance metrics and which can be used to print functional electrodes. This work provides a systematic path toward automated design and fabrication of engineered electrodes with precise control over the fluid and species distribution.This work was performed under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Energy by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory under Contract DE-AC52-07NA27344.

Ever-growing demand to develop satisfactory electrochemical devices has driven cutting-edge research in designing and manufacturing reliable solid-state electrochemical energy storage devices (EESDs). 3D printing, a precise and programmable layer-by-layer manufacturing technology, has drawn substantial attention to build advanced solid-state EESDs and unveil intrinsic charge storage mechanisms. It provides brand-new opportunities as well as some challenges in the field of solid-state energy storage. This review focuses on the topic of 3D printing for solid-state energy storage, which bridges the gap between advanced manufacturing and future EESDs. It starts from a brief introduction followed by an emphasis on 3D printing principles, where basic features of 3D printing and key issues for solid-state energy storage are both reviewed. Recent advances in 3D printed solid-state EESDs including solid-state batteries and solid-state supercapacitors are then summarized. Conclusions and perspectives are also provided regarding the further development of 3D printed solid-state EESDs. It can be expected that advanced 3D printing will significantly promote future evolution of solid-state EESDs.

The increasing demand for multifunctional portable/wearable electronic devices, including wireless sensors and implantable medical devices is continuously growing. Such devices need rechargeable batteries with dimensions on the scale of 1–10 mm3 (few to tens mm2 footprint area of substrate) including all the components and all the associated packing. Thus, in the past decade, along with the developments in battery materials, the focus has been shifting more and more towards innovative fabrication processes, unconventional configurations, and designs with multi-functional components. 3D printing technologies enable a well-controlled creation of functional materials with three-dimensional architectures, representing a promising approach for fabrication of next-generation electrochemical energy storage (EES) devices with high performance due to a higher electrode/electrolyte interfacial area.In this work, we demonstrate a novel design and a novel approach of 3D printing of batteries of different shapes and size by using filaments composed of active electrode materials bound with polymers. The electrodes were printed by fused-filament fabrication (FFF) method. We demonstrated a reversible electrochemical cycling of 3D printed lithium iron phosphate (LFP) and lithium titanate (LTO) composite polymer electrodes vs. lithium metal anode with high performance and capacity in cells containing both conventional non-aqueous and ionic-liquid electrolytes.In addition, the development and fabrication of a novel 3D-printed solid-state or quasi-solid electrolyte by FFF has been accomplished. The electrolytes are composed primarily of polyethylene oxide (PEO) and polyethylene glycol (PEG) which are known ionic conductors, and polylactic acid (PLA) for enhanced mechanical properties and high temperature durability.Our research introduces novel thick-layer 3D batteries, thus reducing cost related to high mass loading per battery footprint of smart 3D structures with the help of low-cost fabrication method.

To support the global goal of carbon neutrality, numerous efforts have been devoted to the advancement of electrochemical energy conversion (EEC) and electrochemical energy storage (EES) technologies. For these technologies, transition metal dichalcogenide/carbon (TMDC/C) heterostructures have emerged as promising candidates for both electrode materials and electrocatalysts over the past decade, due to their complementary advantages. It is worth noting that interfacial properties play a crucial role in establishing the overall electrochemical characteristics of TMDC/C heterostructures. However, despite the significant scientific contribution in this area, a systematic understanding of TMDC/C heterostructures' interfacial engineering is currently lacking. This literature review aims to focus on three types of interfacial engineering, namely interfacial orientation engineering, interfacial stacking engineering, and interfacial doping engineering, of TMDC/C heterostructures for their potential applications in EES and EEC devices. To accomplish this goal, a combination of experimental and theoretical approaches was used to allow the analysis and summary of the fundamental electrochemical properties and preparation strategies of TMDC/C heterostructures. Moreover, this review highlights the design and utilization of the interfacial engineering of TMDC/C heterostructures for specific EES and EEC devices. Finally, the challenges and opportunities of using interfacial engineering of TMDC/C heterostructures in practical EES and EEC devices are outlined. We expect that this review will effectively guide readers in their understanding, design, and application of interfacial engineering of TMDC/C heterostructures.

The development of efficient aqueous electrochemical energy storage (EES) devices is an important sustainability issue to realize green electrical grids. Although current nonaqueous EES devices operate through the intercalation chemistry of host electrode materials, capacitive or pseudocapacitive intercalation has recently emerged as an alternative chemistry for advanced aqueous EES devices. In particular, metal carbide/nitride nanosheets termed MXene are a promising class of intercalation capacitor and pseudocapacitor electrode materials. However, general design strategies of MXenes for aqueous EES applications have not been established because of the limited understanding of the complex electrochemical properties of MXenes with aqueous electrolytes. In this talk, using experimental and theoretical analyses, we clarify the anomalous dielectric properties of aqueous ions confined between MXene nanosheets, leading to the enhanced charge storage capability of MXenes with aqueous electrolytes. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the change of water activity in aqueous electrolytes largely alters aqueous-ion intercalation chemistry, which also influences the charge storage capability of MXenes. References Y. Ando, M. Okubo, A. Yamada, M. Otani, Adv. Funct. Mater., 2020, 202000820.K. Kim, et al., M. Okubo & A. Yamada, Chem. Mater., 2019, 31, 5190-5196.A. Sugahara, et al., M. Okubo & A. Yamada, Nature Commun., 2019, 10, 850.M. Okubo, et al., & A. Yamada, Acc. Chem. Res., 2018, 51, 591-599.

Design and synthesis of carbon-based nanomaterials for electrochemical energy storage

Not much time has passed since the appearance of the first 3D printer. Today there are many different printers. They differ in various 3D printing technologies, namely: Stereolithography – SL, Selective Laser Sintering, Fused Deposition Modeling – FDM, Laminated Object Manufacturing – LOM, Polyjet and Ployjet Matrix. In recent years, the spread of 3D printing technology has become and continues to be used more and more today. Of course, in the future we will see a large-scale spread of additive methods, but the practical application of 3D printing today is available to everyone. Melting deposition modeling technologies have become widespread and available. The authors in this article consider possible options for upgrading the mounting of the end sensor of the Z Axis and automating the process of calibration of the zero gap of the extruder nozzle relative to the working surface of the printer. This calibration is important. This affects the accuracy and printing process of the future plastic model. During the operation of the 3D printer, it is often necessary to service the extruder, which forces the process of calibrating the zero gap of the printer nozzle. Optimally correct selected nozzle clearance affects the accuracy, geometry of the model and printing as a whole. It also allows you to get rid of peeling off the model from the desktop surface and the destruction of the model during printing.

Recent developments in three-dimensional (3D) printing technology offer immense potential in fabricating scaffolds and implants for various biomedical applications, especially for bone repair and regeneration. As the availability of autologous bone sources and commercial products is limited and surgical methods do not help in complete regeneration, it is necessary to develop alternative approaches for repairing large segmental bone defects. The 3D printing technology can effectively integrate different types of living cells within a 3D construct made up of conventional micro- or nanoscale biomaterials to create an artificial bone graft capable of regenerating the damaged tissues. This article reviews the developments and applications of 3D printing in bone tissue engineering and highlights the numerous conventional biomaterials and nanomaterials that have been used in the production of 3D-printed scaffolds. A comprehensive overview of the 3D printing methods such as stereolithography (SLA), selective laser sintering (SLS), fused deposition modeling (FDM), and ink-jet 3D printing, and their technical and clinical applications in bone repair and regeneration has been provided. The review is expected to be useful for readers to gain an insight into the state-of-the-art of 3D printing of bone substitutes and their translational perspectives.

Three-dimensional printing is a rapidly developing area of technology and manufacturing in the field of oral surgery. The aim of this study was comparison of presurgical models made by two different types of three-dimensional (3D) printing technology. Digital reference models were printed 10 times using fused deposition modelling (FDM) and digital light processing (DLP) techniques. All 3D printed models were scanned using a technical scanner. The trueness, linear measurements, and printing time were evaluated. The diagnostic models were compared with the reference models using linear and mean deviation for trueness measurements with computer software. Paired t-tests were performed to compare the two types of 3D printing technology. A P value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. For FDM printing, all average distances between the reference points were smaller than the corresponding distances measured on the reference model. For the DLP models, the average distances in the three measurements were smaller than the original. Only one average distance measurement was greater. The mean deviation for trueness was 0.1775 mm for the FDM group and 0.0861 mm for the DLP group. Mean printing time for a single model was 517.6 minutes in FDM technology and 285.3 minutes in DLP. This study confirms that presurgical models manufactured with FDM and DLP technologies are usable in oral surgery. Our findings will facilitate clinical decision-making regarding the best 3D printing technology to use when planning a surgical procedure.

This case report presents the surgical management of a complex abdominal sarcoma in a 33-year-old female patient, emphasizing the pivotal role of advanced imaging and three-dimensional (3D) printing technology in optimizing surgical outcomes. The study aimed to explore the clinical value of integrating computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and patient-specific 3D-printed models for preoperative planning, intraoperative navigation, and postoperative evaluation. A multidisciplinary team utilized Mimics23 software to generate a detailed 3D reconstruction of the tumor and its intricate anatomical relationships with the ileocecal region, appendix, and colon. This model guided the precise resection of a 15 × 10 × 10cm high-grade sarcoma, minimizing damage to adjacent critical structures. The technology-enhanced approach resulted in complete tumor excision with clear margins, and postoperative no complications. This case underscores the potential of 3D visualization and printing to address the challenges of complex abdominal sarcomas, offering a paradigm for personalized surgical strategies in oncology.

This study evaluates the accuracy of drill guides fabricated in medical-grade, biocompatible materials for static, computer-aided implant surgery (sCAIS). The virtually planned drill guides of ten completed patient cases were printed (n = 40) using professional (Material Jetting (MJ)) and consumer-level three-dimensional (3D) printing technologies, namely, Stereolithography (SLA), Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF), and Digital Light Processing (DLP). After printing and post-processing, the drill guides were digitized using an optical scanner. Subsequently, the drill guide’s original (reference) data and the surface scans of the digitized 3D-printed drill guide were superimposed to evaluate their incongruencies. The accuracy of the 3D-printed drill guides was calculated by determining the root mean square (RMS) values. Additionally, cast models of the planned cases were used to check that the drill guides fitted manually. The RMS (mean ± SD) values for the accuracy of 3D-printed drill guides were—MJ (0.09 ± 0.01 mm), SLA (0.12 ± 0.02 mm), FFF (0.18 ± 0.04 mm), and DLP (0.25 ± 0.05 mm). Upon a subjective assessment, all drill guides could be mounted on the cast models without hindrance. The results revealed statistically significant differences (p < 0.01) in all except the MJ- and SLA-printed drill guides. Although the measured differences in accuracy were statistically significant, the deviations were negligible from a clinical point of view. Within the limits of this study, we conclude that consumer-level 3D printers can produce surgical guides with a similar accuracy to a high-end, professional 3D printer with reduced costs.

To explore feasibility of 3D metal printing technology combined with virtual design proximal clavicle anatomical plate. A 52-year-old male healthy volunteer was retrospectively selected to design proximal clavicle anatomical plate system by using Mimics15.01,NX12.0 and other software. STL data were input into 3D printer to print 1:1 clavicle model and proximal clavicle anatomical plate. The fit of the plate was tested in vitro and the accuracy of screw position was evaluated by imaging. Printing time of model,nail path design and fabrication time of the anatomical plate at proximal clavicle were recorded. The 3D metal printing proximal clavicle anatomical plate fitted well to clavicle model,orientation of proximal clavicle locking screw was accurate,and X-ray and CT scan showed the screw position was good. Printing time of model,the time of nail path design,and the time of making anatomical plate of proximal clavicle were 120,15 and 300 min respectively. The proximal clavicular anatomical plate system based on 3D metal printing technology could achieve good lamination of proximal clavicular fracture plate and precise screw placement,providing a new and accurate surgical method for the treatment of the proximal clavicular fracture.

This study evaluates the three-dimensional (3D) printing materials used in Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) printing technology. 3D printing technology has been developing strongly, becoming an effective support tool in production and research. The 3D printing process involves many stages, with many parameters affecting the quality and properties of the product, in which 3D printing material is one of many essential factors affecting that process. The study conducts a comprehensive assessment of the most common materials in 3D printing technology to determine the advantages and limitations of precisely five types of materials: Polylactic acid, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene, polyethylene terephthalate glycol-modified, thermoplastic polyurethane, and acrylonitrile styrene acrylate. With 3D printing, parameters such as sintering temperature, printing speed, and layer thickness are kept constant. These parameters are applied equally to all five material samples. The experiment evaluates the tensile strength of materials. The study results provide an overview of the properties and applicability of 3D printing materials, helping to select materials suitable for specific FDM 3D printing technology applications.