A Bayesian Shared Control Approach for Wheelchair Robot With Brain Machine Interface.

In this paper, to develop a hybrid brain-computer interface based on Steady State Visual Evoked Potential(SSVEP) and P300, we validate a SSVEP brain-computer interface (BCI) with the hybrid stimuli of SSVEP and P300, and analyze the effect of P300 visual stimuli on the classification accuracy of the SSVEP BCI. The hybrid stimuli include the SSVEP stimuli, which consist of twochessboardimagespresented on a LCD screen and flashing at particular frequencies, respectively, and the P300 stimuli, which include nine characters and locate between the SSVEP stimuli. We extract the fundamental frequencies and second harmonics of the frequencies of the SSVEP stimulifrom EEG data as features, andapply a Fisher's linear discriminant analysis to build the classifier. The experimental results from three subjects show that the SSVEP potentials can be elicited well under the hybrid stimuli of SSVEP and P300, and the P300 stimuli under the hybrid condition have no significant effect on the SSVEP BCI. This work laysa foundationfor developing a hybrid BCIbased on SSVEP and P300.

Brain machine interfaces (BMIs) provide one of the important means to interact with external world for a patient who lost motor function by using brain electrical signals such as scalp electroencephalogram (EEG). The main function of BMIs is to detect, analyze and classify the modulation of EEG according to a user's intent and to decode it to demonstrate to others. Most of conventional BMIs with relatively high speed and high classification accuracy have a requisite that a user can open and move his/her eyes toward a target corresponding to user's intent and gaze at it. Locked-in patients, who have lost almost all motor function including facial muscle, cannot control the eye-movement as well as gaze. The present study aimed at developing a BMI which was independent of the eye-movement and eye-gaze as a final goal. In this paper, we discuss the feasibility of binary class of BMI available with eyes-closed condition using a recent our newly observation that the steady-state visual evoked potential (SSVEP) could be modulated by performing the mental tasks even in the eyes-close state. Temporal evolution of the modulation of SSVEP was investigated using the amplitude of SSVEP and Kullback-Leibler (KL) divergence. The amplitudes of fundamental SSVEP (10 Hz) averaged across 11 participants showed significant difference between the mental focusing task and relaxed runs from the onset of the flicker stimuli with the frequency of 10 Hz and the intensity of 5 lx, whereas those of the second harmonic SSVEP (20 Hz) gave only small difference without statistical significance. For the image recalling task, the amplitude differences between the fundamental SSVEPs in the task and relaxed conditions did not show significant difference, whereas the amplitude differences of the second harmonic SSVEP showed the main effect of the image recall task. The KL divergences for the fundamental SSVEP amplitude showed large differences at the onset of flicker stimuli and gradual decrease with time at P4 and O2 for the mental focus task, yet no such characteristic evolution was not seen in KL divergence for the second harmonic SSVEP. On the other hand, the KL divergences during the image recalling were increased with time for both the fundamental and second harmonic SSVEPs at most of the electrode sites. The classification accuracies of the proposed BMI exceeded 75 % in average across the subjects for both tasks using Fisher's linear discriminant analysis.

Brain–computer interface (BCI) systems rely on the direct measurement of brain signals, such as event-related desynchronization (ERD), steady state visual evoked potentials (SSVEPs), P300s, or slow cortical potentials. Unfortunately, none of these BCI approaches work for all users. This study compares two conventional BCI approaches (ERD and SSVEP) within subjects, and also evaluates a novel hybrid BCI based on a combination of these signals. We recorded EEG data from 12 subjects across three conditions. In the first condition, subjects imagined moving both hands or both feet (ERD). In the second condition, subjects focused on one of the two oscillating visual stimuli (SSVEP). In the third condition, subjects simultaneously performed both tasks. We used logarithmic band power features at sites and frequencies consistent with ERD and SSVEP activity, and subjects received real-time feedback based on their performance. Subjects also completed brief questionnaires. All subjects could simultaneously perform the movement and visual task in the hybrid condition even though most subjects had little or no training. All subjects showed both SSVEP and ERD activity during the hybrid task, consistent with the activity in both single tasks. Subjects generally considered the hybrid condition moderately more difficult, but all of them were able to complete the hybrid task. Results support the hypothesis that subjects who do not have strong ERD activity might be more effective with an SSVEP BCI, and suggest that SSVEP BCIs work for more subjects. A simultaneous hybrid BCI is feasible, although the current hybrid approach, which involves combining ERD and SSVEP in a two-choice task to improve accuracy, is not significantly better than a comparable SSVEP BCI. Switching to an SSVEP BCI could increase reliability in subjects who have trouble producing the EEG activity necessary to use an ERD BCI. Subjects who are proficient in both BCI approaches might be able to combine these approaches in different ways and for different goals.

Decision letter: Neural markers of predictive coding under perceptual uncertainty revealed with Hierarchical Frequency Tagging

The dynamic clamp technology to implement artificial membrane or synaptic conductances is one of the most successful examples of closed-loop interactions with the nervous system for observation and control purposes (for a review see [1]). We recently proposed a generalization of the dynamic clamp concept to design goal-driven closed-loop interactions with biological systems beyond electrical stimulation and recording in the context of in vitro electrophysiology and animal ethology [2]. Following the same activity-dependent stimulation approach, we designed an assisted closed-loop (ACL) to optimize the efficiency of brain-computer interfaces (BCI) based on steady state visually evoked potentials (SSVEP) [3]. SSVEP based BCIs use multiple visual stimuli such as LEDs or regions on a screen flickering at different frequencies. A subject's brain generates electrical activity at the same fundamental frequency as the visual stimulus on which the subject has focused his/her attention. The ACL consists in the delivery of online information with regard to the control over the given BCI goal both to the human subject and to the system, resulting in an online adaptation of BCI stimuli properties, in this first proof of concept study the combination of the employed flicker frequencies (Figure ​(Figure1).1). The optimization process is realized by first performing a real-time closed-loop search for the best set of stimulation frequencies to achieve the given BCI goal, which informs the system about the most effective flicker frequencies to produce SSVEPs in a given subject. Secondly, a continuous auditory feedback informs the subject about the actual distance to a predefined detection threshold. Figure 1 The assisted closed-loop (ACL) provides online information to the system about the most effective flicker frequencies and to the human subject about the actual distance to the pre-defined SSVEP detection threshold by a continuous auditory feedback (speaker ... Our results show that this shared online information leads to an enhanced BCI efficiency, as compared to classic BCI protocols, by helping them to reach the BCI goal in their interaction. The analysis also shows that the ACL protocol takes into account interindividual variabilities. In particular, baseline resting state EEG measures seem to predict subjects' BCI performances, which indicates that the ACL based BCIs might be expanded to innovative new diagnostic/therapeutic tools for clinical contexts and as new paradigms for basic research. Taking all together, these results illustrate that assisted closed-loop protocols can reveal dynamics otherwise hidden under traditional stimulation techniques, provide control of regular and pathological states, induce learning processes, bridge between distinct levels of analysis and lead to automation of experiments. The proposed approach might have a large impact for applied uses, such as computer control and biomedical or prosthetic uses, but also in novel paradigms for neuroscientific and biomedical research.

The steady-state visual evoked potential (SSVEP) has been widely applied in brain-computer interfaces (BCIs), such as letter or icon selection and device control. Most of these BCIs used different flickering frequencies to evoke SSVEP with different frequency components that were used as control commands. In this paper, a novel method combining the time phase and EEG frequency components is presented and validated with nine healthy subjects. In this method, four different frequency components of EEG were classified out from four time phases. When the SSVEP is evoked and what is the frequency of the SSVEP is determined by the linear discriminant analysis (LDA) classifier in the same time to locate the target image. The results from offline analysis show that this method yields good performance both in classification accuracy and information transfer rate (ITR).KeywordsBrain-computer interfaces (BCIs)Electroencephalogram (EEG)Steady-state visual evoked potential (SSVEP)Time phase

Objective. A visual stimulator plays a vital part in brain–computer interfaces (BCIs) based on steady-state visual evoked potential (SSVEP). The properties of visual stimulation, such as frequency, color, and waveform, will influence SSVEP-based BCI performance to some extent. Recently, the computer monitor serves as a visual stimulator that is widespread in SSVEP-based BCIs because of its great flexibility in generating visual stimuli. However, stimulation properties based on a computer monitor have received very little attention. For a better comprehension of SSVEPs, this study explored the stimulation effects of waveforms and frequencies, when evoking SSVEPs through a computer monitor. Approach. This study utilized the approximation methods to realize sine- and square-wave temporal modulations at 18 stimulation frequencies ranging from 6 to 40 Hz on a conventional 120 Hz LCD screen. We collected electroencephalogram (EEG) datasets from 12 healthy subjects and compared the signal-to-noise ratios (SNRs), amplitudes, and topographic mapping of SSVEPs evoked by these two temporal modulation flickers (sine- and square-wave). In addition, a BCI experiment with two nine-target BCIs (i.e. low-frequency BCI and high-frequency BCI) was implemented to compare the two stimulation waveforms in terms of BCI performance. Main results. For both sine- and square-wave stimulation conditions, strong SSVEPs over the occipital area were observed for each stimulation frequency. SSVEP amplitudes at the stimulation frequency exhibited a global peak in the low-frequency band. The second harmonic SSVEP frequency-response functions showed the largest amplitude at 6 Hz and fell sharply for higher frequencies. In the BCI experiment, the classification performance of the square-wave stimuli was notably higher than that of the sine-wave stimuli when using shorter data lengths. Significance. These results suggested that the square-wave flicker was more efficient at implementing high-speed BCIs based on SSVEP when using a computer monitor as a visual stimulator.

Brain Computer Interface (BCI) is useful as an interface to operate a computer and external equipment using brain activities. A Steady-State Visual Evoked Potential (SSVEP) is known as the powerful tool to achieve BCI systems. A user of BCI focuses on the visual stimulus which produces brain activities used as an input of BCI. On the other hand, the user needs to pay own attention to surrounding situation for avoiding accidents. This means that the user should turn own attention to both the environment and the visual stimulus. The practical SSVEP based BCI often places visual stimuli around a fixation point which displays the surrounding situation captured by a camera. In addition, the visual stimulus equipped with moving vehicles has a slight movement due to our body movement and vehicle movement. This fact shows that the visual stimulus is moving at the side of user's vision. However, the relation of a SSVEP and a place and moving of visual stimulus has not been discussed. In this paper, we measure and analyze SSVEP for visual stimulus located on the surrounding area of fixation point, and a moving visual stimulus.

This work presents the development of a Brain Computer Interface (BCI) based on Steady State Visual Evoked Potentials (SSVEP), that enables a user to control a remote control car. The visual stimulus conditions of area, frequency, and shape were evaluated with the purpose of obtaining the SSVEP signal with the highest amplitude in order to obtain the best performance of the developed BCI. A remote control car was built and was controlled by a healthy subject using the developed SSVEP BCI, proving its proper functionality. This BCI has the purpose of helping people with motor disabilities; one of its possible applications could be the control of wheelchairs.

This study provides an insight into a novel steady state visually evoked potential (SSVEP) brain computer interface (BCI) approach. In this approach, four groups of light emitting diodes (LEDs) that flicker at different frequencies are used and each of these groups consist of three LEDs connected in series. By providing visual attention to these LEDs, corresponding electroencephalograph (EEG) signals were obtained in the visual cortex area of the brain. Using suitable signal processing algorithms, acquired EEG signals were classified at different frequencies and given as inputs to a brain computer interface system that can control the movement of a wheelchair. This method provides a platform for individuals who are affected by neuromuscular degenerative diseases (NMD) such as Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), Locked-in Syndrome (LIS) etc, to help them lead an independent life. Two different SSVEP approaches were carried out on four healthy subjects for prototype testing. First approach was based on four groups of LEDs flickering at different frequencies ranging from 7 Hz to 15 Hz and the subjects selectively paid attention to one group of LEDs at a time. The second approach was based on simultaneous flickering of two groups of LEDs at different frequency combinations. Five trials were conducted on four subjects to test the performance of the system. The average accuracy obtained with each of the methods was greater than 70% with an average time of less than 10 seconds to trigger a command for BCI based application. The proposed system can thus provide a visual stimulator based on simple and customizable LED for a cost- effective BCI approach. Also, the efficiency and accuracy of the proposed SSVEP approach was compared to audio steady state response (ASSR) approach, where the subjects concentrated to two tones of beat frequencies at 37 Hz and 43 Hz. The average accuracy obtained with ASSR approach was only 47.5% with an average time of 18.72 seconds. Compared to ASSR, SSVEP approach is 23% more efficient.

Individuals with severe physical impairments have difficulties operating electric wheelchairs (EWs), especially in situations where fine steering abilities are required. Automatic driving partly solves the problem, although excessive reliance on automatic driving is not conducive to maintaining their residual physical functions and may cause more serious diseases in the future. The objective of this study was to develop a shared control system that can be adapted to different environments by completely utilizing the operating ability of the user while maintaining the motivation of the user to drive. The operating characteristics of individuals with severe physical impairments were first analyzed to understand their difficulties when operating EWs. Subsequently, a novel reinforcement learning-based shared control method was proposed to adjust the control weight between the user and the machine to meet the requirements of fully exploiting the operating abilities of the users while assisting them when necessary. Experimental results showed that the proposed shared control system gradually adjusted the control weights between the user and the machine, providing safe operation of the EW while ensuring full use of the control signals from the user. It was also found that the shared control results were deeply affected by the types of users.

Brain-computer interface (BCI) systems translate the human neurophysiological activities into commands through EEG analysis. Improving the BCI performances leads to faster and easier use and less fatigue. In this study, we proposed a new prepossessing approach to increase the robustness of a steady-state visual evoked potential (SSVEP) based BCI. Inspiring from the known properties of the SSVEP frequency components, the goal was to enhance the signal quality by making it more convenient to be interpreted by the decision-making step. We first investigated the potential to detect the deteriorating periods based on the physiological properties of the SSVEP. The proposed system localizes the intervals which can obscure the SSVEP frequencies by a new algorithm founded on the processing and the analysis of the instantaneous phase. The piecewise linear regression allows a sampler comprehension of the phase signal. Then, these intervals are filtered by the moving average filter to enhance the SSVEP quality. Finally, the decision making is made by the canonical correlation analysis (CCA) algorithm. The results of experiments, using real EEG signals from five subjects, show that the proposed approach significantly increases the performances in terms of accuracy and information transfer rate by about 7.3% and 3.85 bits/min, respectively, in case of 2 s segment length. On the other hand, the spatial filtering methods of the literature weaken the system performances.

The Shared Control (SC) cooperation scheme, where the driver and automated driving system control the vehicle together, has been gaining attention through the years as a promising option to improve road safety. As a result, advanced interaction methods can be investigated to enhance user experience, acceptance, and trust. Under this perspective, not only the development of algorithms and system applications are needed, but it is also essential to evaluate the system with real drivers, assess its impact on road safety, and understand how drivers accept and are willing to use this technology. In this sense, the contribution of this work is to conduct an experimental study to evaluate if a previously developed shared control system can improve overtaking performance on roads with oncoming traffic. The evaluation is performed in a Driver-in-the-Loop (DiL) simulator with 13 real drivers. The system based on SC is compared against a vehicle with conventional SAE-L2 functionalities. The evaluation includes both objective and subjective assessments. Results show that SC proved to be the best solution for assisting the driver during overtaking in terms of safety and acceptance. The SC's longer and smoother control transitions provide benefits to cooperative driving. The System Usability Scale (SUS) and the System Acceptance Scale (SAS) questionnaire show that the SC system was perceived as better in terms of usability, usefulness, and satisfaction.

Electroencephalogram (EEG) based brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) for wheelchair control have great value for those with devastating neuromuscular disorders. Although there have been many attempts to implement EEG-based wheelchair control systems by P300, steady state visual evoked potential (SSVEP), and motor imagery (MI) related event-related desynchronization/synchronization (ERD/ERS), the number of simultaneous control commands in those BCI systems is strictly limited, and those BCI control do not work for a non-negligible portion of users due to the problem of BCI Illiteracy.In this paper, we develop a multimodal BCI based wheelchair control system, the user could employ subject-optimized mental strategies to produce multiple commands to control the wheelchair, which include ERD/ERS, SSVEP, and simultaneous ERD/ERS and SSVEP. It could not only help address ”BCI illiteracy”, but also provide simultaneous control commands for complex control. Experiment results demonstrate the proposed system is effective and flexible in practical application.KeywordsBCIwheelchair controlmultimodalBCI Illiteracy

Application of a reconstruction technique in detection of dominant SSVEP frequency