A Meta-Analysis of Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) Studies Across Continents

Technical and vocational education and training (TVET) programs are most successful at supporting youth labor markets when they combine education and employment. Education-employment linkage theory describes this combination in terms of power-sharing between actors from the education system and their counterparts in the employment system over key processes in the curriculum value chain of curriculum design, curriculum application (program delivery), and curriculum updating. The KOF Education-Employment Linkage Index measures linkage at every function in a TVET program where actors from the two systems interact, aggregating those into processes and phases and eventually an index score. We apply that index to the largest upper-secondary TVET programs in Benin, Chile, Costa Rica, and Nepal. We find that Benin has relatively high education-employment linkage, while the other three countries score very low. Benin's situation is unique because its TVET program is moving from employer-led to linked, rather than the typical employer integration into an education-based program. Other countries with large informal economies, low formal education and training rates, and existing non-formal employer-led training may be able to implement similar approaches using functionally equivalent institutions. Furthermore, we summarize the results of discussions with policy-maker focus groups in the four case study countries.

Human capital theory suggests that accumulating skills through training leads to higher productivity and better employment outcomes. However, empirical evidence, including data from the Philippines, shows mixed and limited results regarding the impact of technical and vocational education and training (TVET). Using labor force and graduate tracer surveys, this study examined whether pursuing TVET improves labor force participation (LFP), employment, and job quality, while considering variations across education levels and program characteristics by applying probabilistic regression and treatment effects estimations. Additionally, interviews with employers from priority sectors were conducted to gain insights into their views on the employability of TVET graduates. The study found that completing a TVET program increases the likelihood of being economically active and seeking work, but there was no strong evidence that it improves the chances of obtaining employment or quality jobs. The employment effects of TVET vary by education level, benefiting only those with at least a secondary education. These effects were strongest among secondary education graduates and decreased with higher levels of education. TVET did not improve the employment outcomes of those with less than a secondary education. Additionally, employment outcomes varied across training modalities, but not by program registration, certification, or scholarship status. Based on key informant interviews (KIIs) and a desk review, these findings can be attributed to supply-side, demand-side, and systemic factors such as a mismatch between program offerings and industry standards, potential bias against TVET graduates, lack of recognition for certifications, and limited private sector involvement in training provision, development, certification, and assessment. The study concludes by offering policy recommendations to improve TVET's impact on employability and employment outcomes, along with suggestions for further research.

This study aims to promote the development of vocational education in our country energetically. The analysis is followed by introducing the course of development on vocational and technical education in Britain and summarizing the successful experience of vocation in our country with strengthening the funding and legislation for the state of vocational education as well as putting forward suggestions for reform and innovation of education to improve the system of certificates.

Technical and vocational education and training (TVET) play an essential role in equipping young people with the knowledge, competencies, and skills necessary for the job market. This study aims to examine factors that influence Cambodian TVET students’ decisions to enroll in TVET programs. The study employed a cross-sectional design, using a questionnaire survey and simple random sampling for data collection. Based on data obtained from 119 Cambodian students (female = 24.4%) enrolled in TVET programs at one TVET institute in Phnom Penh, the study showed that pull factors, such as curriculum and instructors’ competency, were more important than push factors, such as interests and motivation, in influencing Cambodian TVET students’ decisions to enroll in TVET programs. Further analysis revealed a statistically significant difference in how male and female TVET students viewed their career prospects, with male students holding significantly higher views of career prospects with TVET. The study concludes with a discussion of its limitations and suggestions for future research.

The labour market has become dynamic and exigent, as it expects graduates to have quality skills before securing a profitable position. This has increased the unemployment rate among Technical and Vocational Education and Training graduates since TVET institutions are facing challenges in adequately preparing students according to labour market standards. This calls for the need for TVET institutions to redesign their systems and adopt new strategies that address the persistent changing needs of the labour market. Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) have become an efficient means for TVET institutes to deal with this situation. Therefore, based on Cameroon's TVET system, this paper explores the involvement of Public Private Partnerships in advancing TVET, focusing on their roles in linking TVET to the standards of the labour market and improving the quality, credibility and accessibility of TVET education. The paper also highlights the current state of TVET in Cameroon, bringing to light its challenges in bridging the skill gap between graduates and industries. The study further highlights the impact of the limited involvement of PPPs in Cameroon’s TVET system and the economy. It draws on global best practices of PPPs implication in TVET as recommendable actions to sustain Cameroon's TVET system. The results highlight how PPPs can revitalise Cameroon's TVET system to the needs of employers while supporting national development objectives. Through PPPs, Cameroon can establish and sustain a solid TVET system capable of driving innovation, equipping students with required skills, decreasing unemployment among graduates and advancing socio-economic development.

The advancement of Technologies such as Artificial Intelligence (AI) tools are widely used and help in education such as in Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET), as well as Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM). This qualitative study is to identify the impact of AI on students in higher learning settings of TVET and STEM programs in Malaysia. From among science and engineering students, this study aimed to identify in what ways the tools and technologies impact on these learners’ experiences, impact their learning, their academic performance, and preparedness for their careers in the future. This study uses a thematic analysis research design. The sample will consist of 10 participants selected based on varying experiences and views. The research method chosen is an in-depth interview, meaning that it will go into details about the benefits and challenges of AI use in education as they are perceived by students. The initial findings will provide an insight into crucial themes enhancement in learning efficiency, development of critical thinking skills, and challenges resulting from the adoption of new technologies. In addition, this research also identifies possible application areas of AI for improving educational outcomes in TVET and STEM and possible barriers for effective implementation. Findings will provide an overview of the knowledge base at the present time about the adoption of AI in the higher learning sector, with associated meaning for educators, and institutions that are considering embedding AI into curricula. The outcome will further realize how AI could be applied to narrow the gap between traditional ways of educating people regarding the demands of an increasingly digitalized workforce, hence significantly improving the employability of TVET and STEM graduates in Malaysia.

Written for the Second Congressional Commission on Education and based on existing research, this Policy Note provides a snapshot of the country’s technical and vocational education and training (TVET). It finds that enrollment and graduation from TVET programs have increased over time, but the COVID-19 pandemic has impeded this progress. People are more inclined to seek community-based training programs than enterprise-based training programs. In terms of reasons for taking TVET, participants are starting to appreciate the program’s value in upskilling and retooling beyond just gaining employment opportunities. This Note also highlights various issues and concerns surrounding the regulation and implementation of TVET. It reveals that there appears to be a stronger emphasis on achieving equity than TVET’s primary goal of producing graduates with skills that meet the constantly evolving demands of the labor market. To attain the policy objectives of TVET, the authors recommend (1) promoting TVET’s responsiveness to the needs of industries, (2) striking a balance between equity and efficiency goals without compromising one over the other, and (3) enhancing the training providers’ capacity to deliver flexible training while acknowledging the different capacities of TVET clients.

The Cambodia TVET policy aims to develop a competent, skilled labor force. Despite government commitment, the country still faces gaps in technical skills. This study aimed to explore the contribution of continuous professional teacher competence to quality training provision in technical and vocational education and training schools in Battambang Province, Cambodia. This study examines the effectiveness of technical and vocational education and training (TVET) in Cambodia using a tracer study approach. The research aims to assess how well TVET programs prepare graduates for the job market and contribute to their professional development. By surveying student alumni, employers, and educational institutions, the study analyzes the alignment between TVET curricula and industry needs, as well as the employment outcomes of graduates. We selected respondents using multistage sampling techniques. A total of 234 students graduated from NVIB and BIT in the academic years 2020-2024. Findings from SEM indicate that while TVET programs have improved in recent years, there remain gaps in curriculum relevance and practical skills training. The study provides recommendations for enhancing the quality of TVET in Cambodia, emphasizing the importance of stakeholder collaboration, continuous curriculum evaluation, and increased investment in training infrastructure. These findings contribute to the discourse on workforce development in Cambodia and highlight potential pathways for policy improvement in the TVET sector.

Kenya, like other countries in the Sub Sahara Africa (SSA), Technical, vocational education, and training (TVET) is believed to be an obvious remedy to youth employment across the region. As we view TVET in this way, the perception in many if not all the countries across SSA is that TVET is a salvation for the intellectually incapable or those with less or no aspiration for better paying jobs. For the elite and middle class, TVET is in reality not for their children, as it seems almost ‘useless’. Interestingly, even with such perceptions, Kenya and other SSA countries have continued to ‘embrace’ TVET in their education systems but with little investment towards those TVET programmes. In 2018, there was a shift in policy in Kenya with TVET receiving more attention, and as a result attracting a larger budget allocation. The government slashed fees for students in technical and vocational education institutions, and raised public funding in its latest bid to grow the critical skills base needed to achieve the country’s economic ambitions. To support this policy, the government agreed to give an annual bursary of US$300 for every student who joins the technical institutions (University World News, 2018). The students will access the funding through the Higher Education Loans Board (HELB), the agency that disburses loans to university students on behalf of the government. This policy comes as a result of the World bank warning regarding a widening disconnect between labour market skills needs and the graduates of higher education institutions. This paper provides an overview of the state of TVET in Kenya, challenges and possible recommendations to support the new TVET reforms towards making it more attractive for learners in Kenya.

Technical and vocational education and training (TVET) play a pivotal role in preparing the Nigerian workforce for the demands of a rapidly evolving digital economy. In the wake of the Fourth Industrial Revolution 4.0, the integration of digital competencies in TVET programs has become imperative. This chapter explores the strategies and approaches to foster digital competencies in Nigeria's TVET by leveraging Industrial Revolution 4.0 as an enabling technology. The chapter presents the context of the historical evolution of industry 4.0, its components, design principles, main characteristics, and the TVET approach in Nigeria. Emphasizing the urgency of aligning TVET programs with Industrial Revolution 4.0 requirements, the chapter presents best practices that illustrate successful models of incorporating digital competencies into vocational training. The chapter examines the existing challenges and gaps in integrating digital skills into TVET curriculum in Nigeria, addressing issues related to infrastructure, funding, policy frameworks, and inclusivity. The chapter discusses the role of stakeholders such as government bodies, educational institutions, industry partners, and international organizations in facilitating the implementation of Industrial Revolution 4.0-driven initiatives in Nigerian TVET. Furthermore, the chapter offers actionable recommendations for policymakers, educators, and stakeholders to collaboratively design and implement strategies for integrating Industrial Revolution 4.0 technologies into Nigeria's TVET landscape. By doing so, it advocates for a more agile and future-ready workforce capable of harnessing the transformative power of digital technologies in the Nigerian context.

The call for continuous creation of industrial and technological workforce cannot be overlooked, in view of the fact that it will boost the sustainable industrial and technological development of any nation. A vital programme that can bring into being requisite workforce for sustainable industrial and technological development is Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET). To this end, this study investigated the strategies for sprouting sustainable industrial and technological workforce through TVET in Nigeria using the descriptive survey research design. The study was guided with two research questions and two hypotheses. The sample was made up of 300 respondents comprising of 154 TVET Lecturers from Universities and 146 TVET industry-based workers in South-South Geopolitical Zone of Nigeria, who were selected using simple random and convenience sampling techniques respectively. The instrument used for data collection was a 69-item questionnaire which was validated by three experts. The reliability of the instrument was determined using Cronbach Alpha and a reliability coefficient of .86 was obtained. Mean and standard deviations statistics were used to answer the research questions, whereas t-test statistic was used to test the null hypotheses at .05 level of significance. The findings of this study revealed that TVET programmes had some policy-related challenges; and TVET institutions-workplace collaboration is a possible strategy for sprouting sustainable industrial and technological workforce in Nigeria. Thus, among others, it was recommended that firm TVET policy document be set-up by government and all stakeholders to appropriately synchronize TVET programmes towards sprouting sustainable industrial and technological workforce in Nigeria.

Studies have shown that the behaviour of family, friends and significant others shapes young people’s self-belief and interest in Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) programmes. However, limited research has documented how vocational self-efficacy can significantly impact the relationship between perceived social support and students’ interest in Pakistani TVET programmes. Thus, this study utilised quantitative research to examine the role of vocational self-efficacy as a moderator in the relationship between perceived social support and students’ interest in TVET programmes. A total of 386 secondary school students filled out three questionnaires: vocational self-efficacy, perceived social support, and interest in the TVET programmes scale using Social Cognitive Career theory as a theoretical framework. The data were analysed using Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) and statistical analysis using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). The correlation analysis revealed that perceived social support and students’ interest in the TVET programmes were negatively correlated, and vocational self-efficacy was not a moderator. This study benefits the authorities, policymakers, and researchers in supporting TVET programmes in Pakistan.

Unemployment has been a long-standing problem in many countries, including the Philippines, and the recent pandemic even worsened the economic conditions of Filipinos with a large part of the population losing their jobs. One way to create more platforms that will enable the employability of the population is through the technical and vocational education and training (TVET) program, whose goal is to produce middle- and high-skilled graduates ready to take on the demands of the rapidly changing economy. With the current gender gap in terms of employment, this study focuses on the employment status of female graduates of TVET and the possible factors that influence the employment of Filipino female TVET graduates were determined. The survey data collected by the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) in 2018 for their employability study of 2017 women TVET graduates was utilized in this study. Binary Firth logistic regression models were fitted on subpopulations of TVET female graduates who were employed before and after training. Results have shown a significant increase in the proportion of employed women after graduation, which was indicated in the estimates before and after the training. Among the unemployed Filipino female before the training, more than half of them (52%) were employed after the training. Age, education, region, and reasons for taking up a program showed to be determinants of the employability of female TVET graduates. The factors that hinder women from entering employment despite their TVET training is the primacy of their household and family duties. Their choice or nature of programs shows that women take stereotypical roles associated with women, an issue that is still present today because of prevailing traditional gender norms. With the huge decline in economic activities brought by the pandemic, the results of this study will be particularly important in creating more and better employment opportunities for Filipino women.

Hunger, disease and unemployment have been the bane of many developing nations of Africa. One major challenge facing governments of these nations is how to provide jobs for functional living. Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) is recognized as a panacea to unemployment. TVET trains individuals to acquire skills and knowledge in various occupations. The training however, must engender in those individuals the will to propose and solve problems related to human needs and development. In this regard, while educational institutions, especially at the tertiary level, select, train, and develop their students, government and the private sector must make concerted effort to provide employment for the people. The training provided by TVET should not only equip individuals to be gainfully employed but should also enable them become employers of labour, contributing to the economic development of a nation. TVET graduates should be able to set up small and medium scale enterprises in various occupations. Factors that impede graduates of the TVET system from progressing on the career lane are poor planning, socio-cultural factors, lack of credit facilities, availability and cost of spare parts. To deal with these problems, provision of loan facilities, increased funding and organization of workshops and seminars have been advocated.

This book addresses the question of how to build and upgrade job relevant skills. Specifically, the authors focus on three types of training programs relevant for individuals who are leaving formal general schooling or are already in the labor market: pre-employment technical and vocational education and training (TVET); on-the-job training (OJT); and training-related active labor market programs (ALMPs). ALMPs are usually of shorter duration and target individuals who are seeking a second chance and who do not have access to TVET or OJT; these are often low-skilled unemployed or informal workers. Contrary to training-related ALMPs, pre-employment TVET is usually offered within the formal schooling track and tends to be administered by the ministries of education. The book discusses the main justifications for these programs and how they relate to market failures that can lead to underinvestment in training and misalignment between supply and demand for skills. Unfortunately, governments are also prone to failure and many of the programs that countries have adopted today are part of the problem and not the solution. This book proposes options to improve the design and implementation of current skills development systems. Clearly, the authors cannot cover all issues in detail. Training methods among TVET, OJT, and ALMP programs are quite different, ranging from classroom instruction, laboratory research, TVET workshops, and apprenticeship arrangements and internships in firms. All have different challenges and specificities. The report highlights the most important design features of the different programs and points to the main knowledge gaps and areas for future research and analysis. The book is organized into five chapters. Following this overview, chapter two introduces the policy framework that guides the analysis in the book. This framework describes the main market and government failures that require attention and identifies potential interventions to address them. Chapter's three to five then discuss the main challenges facing, respectively, TVET, OJT, and training-related ALMP programs and outlines recommendations to address them. The rest of this overview summarizes the main messages from each of the chapters and in the last section outlines the main knowledge gaps and proposes an agenda for future research and policy analysis.