A multi-layer distributed hybrid planning multi-agent model for urban demand-responsive transport system intelligent control

Efficient operation of demand-responsive transport (DRT) systems:Active requests rejection

Demand-responsive transport (DRT) systems, where users generate requests for transportation from a pickup point to a delivery point, are expected to increase in usage dramatically as the inconvenience of privately-owned cars in metropolitan areas becomes excessive. However, despite the increasing role of DRT systems, there are very few rigorous results characterizing achievable performance (in terms, e.g., of stability conditions). In this paper, our aim is to bridge this gap for a rather general model of DRT systems, which takes the form of a generalized Dynamic Pickup and Delivery Problem. The key strategy is to develop analytical bounds for the optimal cost of the Euclidean Stacker Crane Problem (ESCP), which represents a general static model for DRT systems. By leveraging such bounds, we characterize a necessary and sufficient condition for the stability of DRT systems; the condition depends only on the workspace geometry, the stochastic distributions of pickup and delivery points, customers' arrival rate, and the number of vehicles. Our results exhibit some surprising features that are absent in traditional spatially-distributed queueing systems.

Demand responsive transport (DRT) systems have emerged as innovative solutions to address transportation inequality in areas underserved by conventional public transit. However, some recent DRT services have struggled because of a limited understanding of local contexts and user needs. A growing number of studies have investigated successful modal shift cases, the advantages of DRT, and user satisfaction. Nevertheless, studies conducting in-depth analyses of the factors influencing satisfaction and deriving the factors contributing to modal shifts are rare, with most evaluations limited to simple score-based assessments. This study aims to fill this gap by identifying factors affecting the three core characteristics of DRT services: mobility, accessibility, and user convenience. Using survey data from passengers, we analyzed both satisfaction and dissatisfaction using Binary Logistic Regression with a structured dataset. The analysis revealed several pivotal factors that influence user satisfaction. Key findings include the following: satisfaction levels are positively influenced by a ‘stronger intention to continue using DRT’, ‘reduced first-mile walking time’, and ‘lower detour rates’. Satisfaction with mobility and user convenience is particularly enhanced by the ‘experience of travelling to previously inaccessible locations’. Accessibility satisfaction was significantly affected by a ‘stronger intention to continue using DRT’. Furthermore, user convenience satisfaction is notably influenced by ‘female passengers’, ‘booking via phone’, and ‘no experience with call cancellations’. These findings have significant implications for the DRT service design and operational strategies.

Demand Responsive Transport as Being Paratransit Mode: Istanbul Modelling

Demand responsive transport (DRT) may be a feasible alternative when conventional transportation services provided by private companies are not available at a satisfactory level in terms of both price and quality. Nevertheless, these unconventional transportation systems are still not consolidated due to technical and economic issues. Beyond technical feasibility, DRT needs to be based on prices and pricing policies that ensure the attractiveness of the service without compromising its economic viability. Nevertheless, there is little evidence on the conditions of economic viability of DRT services and on the cost structure of such systems. In this article, we use a strategic activity based costing model to analyze the conditions of economic viability of a DRT system in a Portuguese rural municipality. The case presented was analyzed in terms of costs and profitability. They were defined a set of important variables which should be taken into account in the design and economic evaluation of DRT projects namely, ticket price, trip distance and passengers. Thus, this costing model can be used to assist decision making and support strategic and operational decisions. Furthermore, it can be embedded in a decision support system designed to support the real time operation of intelligent flexible transportation systems.

A Flexible Transport Service for Passengers

With the rapid pace of urbanization and the subsequent dominance of private vehicle usage, cities are under increasing pressure to offer sustainable alternatives to public transportation. Demand-responsive transport (DRT) systems provide flexible, technology-enabled services that bridge first- and last-mile connectivity gaps. This study assesses the operational and financial viability of Dubai's Bus-on-Demand (DBOD) service using Daganzo's continuum approximation framework, calibrated with empirical data from two service areas in Dubai. From the agency perspective, the Alternating Priorities routing strategy (i.e., alternating between nearest pickup and drop-off) was identified as optimal, balancing distance optimization with service consistency and contributing to shorter travel and waiting times. Cost efficiency is highest in compact service areas with moderate demand, with optimal vehicle occupancy of 10–15 passengers to minimize agency costs. To incorporate the user perspective, value of time (VOT) was calibrated for DBOD and integrated with agency costs. Based on the calibrated VOT, fleet size and operational parameters were optimized within a system framework. Moreover, a comparative analysis of three routing strategies across occupancy levels confirmed the superior cost-effectiveness of the Alternating Priorities approach, as implemented in DBOD. The study recommends that transit agencies refine vehicle dispatching, routing, and scheduling strategies to achieve optimal occupancy levels, and emphasizes the necessity of balancing agency and user costs for sustainable DRT implementation. These findings provide transit agencies with an empirical, data-driven framework to evaluate and optimize DRT services, supporting informed decision-making for sustainable urban mobility.

Serving a low demand, rural areas with public transport is efficient with the use of a flexible and demand-responsive transport (DRT) solution. To improve the service quality of a DRT service, the accessibility of the service, namely the collection points, should be allocated considering the travelers’ needs. This paper presents a collection point allocation method for a many-to-one type DRT service, which type connects many points (e.g. a neighborhood) with one point (e.g. local center, high-capacity public transport station providing a feeder service). Our research addresses how to optimize the collection point locations by considering walking distances, geographical characteristics, and demand data. Two approaches have been developed: a demand-centric approach, where demand points are known, and a general approach based on spatial characteristics in the absence of demand data. The proposed methods have been validated through a case study in Szentendre, Hungary, focusing on demand-responsive school bus service. Both approaches significantly reduce the walking distance compared to conventional public transport services, while the limited number of collection points ensures that the performance of the service remains within realistic limits. The results of this research can provide guidance for the development of existing services and the introduction of new DRT systems.

Demand responsive transport (DRT) solutions may improve rural transport systems. These solutions often emerge as social innovations in rural areas. In Switzerland, their planning process is embedded in a rigid regulatory framework of the public transport system. The objective of this paper is to understand in which way the regulatory framework of the public transport system influences planning processes of a DRT solution in a rural setting. The methodological approach of social innovation biographies helps to examine the necessary planning steps to start mybuxi, a DRT in two Swiss rural municipalities. Our findings show that regulatory constraints dominate the final planning stage of the social innovation. Protections of current public transport regulations hinder federal offices from subsidizing the DRT, having direct implications on the financial sustainability of the system. The findings of this paper help actors to better address regulatory questions in the early stage of the respective innovation process.

Demand responsive transport (DRT) is operated according to flexible routes, dispatch intervals, and dynamic demand, is attracting a lot of attention. The biggest characteristic of the DRT service is that the vehicle routes and schedules are operated optimally based on real-time travel requests of using passengers without fixed operating schedules. This study analyzed the feasibility of implementing the DRT service by analyzing the benefits for the users and cost of the operator from the effects of increasing public transportation use and providing personalized mobility service based on DRT implementation by the introduction of DRT using multi-agent transport simulation (MATSim). Through the simulation, the DRT is expected to provide convenient, fast, and cost-effective mobility services to customers; provide an optimal vehicle scale to providers; and, ultimately, achieve a safe and efficient transportation system.

Optimization of demand-responsive transport: The rolling horizon approach

Optimised flexible transport mode without advanced reservations by a DES approach

In recent years, a change in demand trends has influenced the development of public passenger transport, causing a number of critical issues and consequences for the environment, the management policies of these services and, especially, the users. Various passenger transport services have evolved to reduce the use of private vehicles, including DRT systems that consider technological developments like Mobility ad a Service (MaaS). This article focuses on a European literature review on user-oriented research development. The overall objective is to: i) highlight, among all the critical aspects of service development, the factors influencing the economic and ethical aspects; ii) finally identify a discrepancy between the perception of DRT and the empirical research design. The study concludes by providing potential suggestions for improving DRT service deployment and reducing some of the factors influencing users' modal choices. Finally, the paper proposes implications for policy makers and operators.

A behavioral economic perspective on demand responsive transportation

This paper describes the concepts and system approach of FAMS, Flexible Agency for Collective Demand Responsive Mobility Services, a European project founded by the EU-IST Programme and operating in the Florence Metropolitan area. The objective of FAMS Project is to scale up the technology, service and business models currently adopted in demand responsive transport (DRT) and support the evolution from single DRT applications to the concept of an agency for such services. State-of-the-art DRT technology-i.e. booking and reservation systems, route and service planning systems, communication services, service management services, service and customer repositories, etc.-will be further extended and adapted to work within an innovative e-Business infrastructure in order to to achieve networking of the different transport operators involved in Transport services and to allow sharing of information and service interoperability among them. This will ultimately allow different transport operators to cooperate and the overall transport system to work as a virtual, flexible organization. FAMS will implement and trial the concept in the Tuscany region (Italy) and the Angus region (UK).