A Multilingual Perspective on Translanguaging

This research study explores prospects and challenges of bilingual education in the light of language policy of Pakistan. It directs the scholars and policymakers to revisit the notion of language and norms of traditional bilingual education. However, the researcher brings in light that translanguaging as a particular model facilitates for understanding dynamic multilingualism to promote social justice to languages and their speakers. The implementation of this model is viable in both theory and practice. The issue of monoglossic model of bilingual education in Pakistan is yet to be dealt with. Moreover, the researcher employed qualitative empirical method and used secondary data from previous studies to investigate the problem. Additionally, the findings reveal that the subtractive language policy, linguistic hegemony, politicians’ monolingual politics are challenges to the dynamic bilingual education. On the other hand, multilingual reality and its practice, speakers’ multilingual repertoire, transcultural interaction of students are important prospects of dynamic bilingual education policy in Pakistan. The study also highlights the research gap in Pakistani bilingual classrooms from the latest approach of translanguaging and dynamic model of bilingualism which can direct a multilingual language policy of Pakistan.

This study seeks to identify the obstacles and opportunities involved in setting up a bilingual education system and to identify the challenges and benefits associated with the daily experience of maintaining a bilingual education model. This study discusses the benefits of developing a bilingual education program and what these programs can offer regarding concerns related to the lives of minority people in Turkey. Explanatory sequential mixed method was used for this study. The first phase of this study was a survey that measured the perspectives of educators regarding potential bilingual education curricula in Turkey. The second phase comprised a qualitative data collection process to expand on the findings of quantitative results. For quantitative data collection, 140 participants responded the survey instrument. Participants included 96 males and 44 females. For qualitative data collection, eight participants were interviewed. Both quantitative and qualitative data reflected the benefits of a bilingual education program. First, minority students who are taught by means of a bilingual education program can protect their linguistic knowledge, cultural heritage, ethnic, and religious identity. Second, they can increase their understanding of linguistic and cultural diversity. Third, school attendance at the primary school level could be increased. Fourth, a bilingual program could contribute to the reduction of inequalities.

Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism by Colin Baker. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters, 1993. xvi + 319 pp. Reviewed by Patricia Baquedano-Lopez University of California, Los Angeles coming to terms with bilingualism within their increasing awareness, language policies are being created and educators are trying to redesign curricula to better serve the needs of language minority students. Colin Baker's book Foundations of countries are this Many borders. With Bilingual Education and Bilingualism is an introductory textbook which provides prospective teachers with a review of the most salient issues in bilingual education. The book is decidedly written to address issues of more European and British import, but Baker makes an effort to include examples from a wide variety of educational policies, for example, New Zealand's programs on the use of Maori and English and the bilingual models in Canada and the U.S. For this reason, teachers and students interested in obtaining a global perspective on bilingualism will find this book appealing. Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism is divided into two main sections: A) The individual and social nature of bilingualism and B) Bilingual education policies and classroom practices. Section A contains ten chapters introducing current theories of bilingualism and second language acquisition (SLA). Chapters 1 and 2 discuss in general terms the different types of bilingualism and their measurement. In this regard, rather than following traditional methods, such as self-ratings and questionnaires, Baker emphasizes the need for a communicative testing approach using criterion- referenced tasks; however, after examining a chart of sample For communicative situations, one notes their culture-dependancy. example, the communicative goal that requires children to give, receive and follow accurately precise instructions and the assessment task that requires children to plan a wall display or arrange an outing together in a group (p. 29) is at best, appropriate for most Western societies; therefore, prospective teachers must bear this in mind objectives and tasks. when developing language Chapters 3 and 4 discuss the functions of language in society and the need for policies on language revival and reversal. While Baker presents an account of Fishman's (1980) landmark study on diglossia (the use of two languages in distinct language domains, such as the school and the home) as promoting bilingualism, he omits other views that contend that both larger Issues in Applied Linguistics ISSN 1050-4273 Vol. 6 No. Regents of the University of California

Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism by Colin Baker. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters, 1993. xvi + 319 pp. Reviewed by Patricia Baquedano-Lopez University of California, Los Angeles coming to terms with bilingualism within their increasing awareness, language policies are being created and educators are trying to redesign curricula to better serve the needs of language minority students. Colin Baker's book Foundations of countries are this Many borders. With Bilingual Education and Bilingualism is an introductory textbook which provides prospective teachers with a review of the most salient issues in bilingual education. The book is decidedly written to address issues of more European and British import, but Baker makes an effort to include examples from a wide variety of educational policies, for example, New Zealand's programs on the use of Maori and English and the bilingual models in Canada and the U.S. For this reason, teachers and students interested in obtaining a global perspective on bilingualism will find this book appealing. Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism is divided into two main sections: A) The individual and social nature of bilingualism and B) Bilingual education policies and classroom practices. Section A contains ten chapters introducing current theories of bilingualism and second language acquisition (SLA). Chapters 1 and 2 discuss in general terms the different types of bilingualism and their measurement. In this regard, rather than following traditional methods, such as self-ratings and questionnaires, Baker emphasizes the need for a communicative testing approach using criterion- referenced tasks; however, after examining a chart of sample For communicative situations, one notes their culture-dependancy. example, the communicative goal that requires children to give, receive and follow accurately precise instructions and the assessment task that requires children to plan a wall display or arrange an outing together in a group (p. 29) is at best, appropriate for most Western societies; therefore, prospective teachers must bear this in mind objectives and tasks. when developing language Chapters 3 and 4 discuss the functions of language in society and the need for policies on language revival and reversal. While Baker presents an account of Fishman's (1980) landmark study on diglossia (the use of two languages in distinct language domains, such as the school and the home) as promoting bilingualism, he omits other views that contend that both larger Issues in Applied Linguistics ISSN 1050-4273 Vol. 6 No. Regents of the University of California

Within the United States, bilingual education has historically been both accepted and restricted. Throughout the context of social and political events, diversity has impacted the educational system of the nation as millions of immigrants have become a part of American society. This continually changing demographic has proven to have a divisive as well as controversial impact on the concurrent political climate. Politicians and policy makers have mirrored the changing dichotomy of the United States nation through legislation that has impacted language minority students who have continually struggled to achieve academic success. Within the research, the author examines the historical background of legislation impacting immigrants and English learners throughout the years. Specific timeframes ranging from an era of linguistic tolerance to an era of linguistic value discuss the response to subsequent diversity. The disparities are examined as well as the changing bilingual program models that have evolved. To examine California's current educational state, ten pieces of enacted legislation have been evaluated in order to determine if bilingual education has been perceived as a problem, a right, or a resource. By framing the legislation and the impact that it has had, it served to negotiate an understanding of each situation, point to a cause, determine an alternative, and thereby promote change. The author has concluded that California has made strides towards creating an educational system where bilingualism and language diversity are perceived as resources that have led to implementation of increased numbers of dual immersion programs.

US‐based bilingual education programs have different goals dependent on their response to linguistic diversity and allocate instructional time in English and students' home languages accordingly. This has led to bilingual education models with pluralist and assimilationist orientations. Even in programs that aim for bilingualism and biliteracy, tensions arise, however, between pluralist intentions and assimilationist (monolingual and monoglossic) sociopolitical forces in education. This entry explores two of these tensions: the use of dichotomous language labels in light of students with linguistically diverse backgrounds and experiences and the impact of standard language ideology on the relationship between the instructional, standard language and students' and families' home language varieties in both English and the partner language.

This theoretical approach of this study is to compare four bilingual educational systems from Spain: Galicia, Catalonia, Basque Country and Valencian Community. To carry out our objective, we explore to what extent different educational systems promote bilingualism in some communities of Spain where local languages have received special attention over the last years. For this purpose, we used comparative methodology of deductive character, in order to contrast some variables of each structure educational system such bilingual programs, types of schools, curriculum, school access, bilingual teachers, native and immigrant students. In the case of Valencia we present the main characteristics of educational system of Valencian Community, where Valencian is the official language together with the state language Castilian Spanish. Bilingual educational programs are an extremely useful tool for a Europe which is interested in conserving its present linguistic and cultural diversity. In providing detailed accounts of the socio-cultural dimension of differentAutonomous Communities from Spain and the characteristics of each context in which policies are inserted, this paper enriches our understanding of the limits and possibilities of the bilingual education models.

Bilingual education has become increasingly popular in China, with a subsequent growth in research, particularly research with a qualitative component that examines learners’ and teachers’ experiences and perspectives. These studies have mostly been conducted in individual classroom settings where contexts and learners differ, making findings less transferrable to other educational settings. To address this need, we conducted a qualitative synthesis of research that aims to provide a holistic and rich description of bilingual education in China. Our focus is on the implementation of bilingual education in different educational contexts, learners’ and teachers’ perceptions of bilingual education, and the research instruments used for the evaluation of bilingual education. Following a discipline-specific methodological framework for conducting qualitative research synthesis (Chong, Sin Wang & Luke Plonsky. 2021. A primer on qualitative research synthesis in TESOL. TESOL Quarterly 55(3). 1024–1034), we identified suitable studies using a pre-determined search string within various databases. Search results were screened based on a set of inclusion criteria and relevant information was extracted from the included studies using a piloted data extraction form. The extracted data were synthesised using grounded theory to identify new themes and sub-themes. Our findings point to the need for more fine-grained classifications of bilingual education models, despite the fact that Chinese learners generally show positive attitudes towards bilingual education. The study ends with an analysis of limitations, as well as recommendations for future research and practice.

Background: In South Africa the majority of learners are failed by school language policies that require them to switch from learning through the medium of their home language, to learning through the medium of English from Grade 4. Yet language ideologies rooted in coloniality sustain the domination of English in education and suppress the home languages of teachers and learners as valid resources for learning.Objectives: The context of this article is a teacher development intervention – Languaging for Learning (L4L) – which aimed to challenge prevailing language ideologies and develop bi/multilingual pedagogies based on the recognition of the learners’ home languages as important resources for learning.Method: Science, Mathematics and English teachers from 10 township schools in the Cape Town Metro participated in the 18-month programme which included workshops, classroom-based support and the provision of some bilingual materials. Data on the teachers’ uptake of the programme were collected through observation, interviews, and video and photographic records.Results: This article describes the shifts in language ideologies and practices of five of the participating teachers. The introduction of bi/multilingual pedagogies impacted positively on learners’ participation, motivation and opportunities to learn as well as on teachers’ sense of efficacy and agency.Conclusion: The research demonstrated how bi/multilingual pedagogies that value learners’ and teachers’ linguistic repertoires as resources for learning can contribute to overcoming the long-standing barriers to learning resulting from language policies and practices that are rooted in coloniality.Contribution: These findings demonstrate how bi/multilingual pedagogies can support epistemic access and biliteracy in education.

After the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak, the disruption of in-person schooling has significantly affected many students including emergent bilingual students. Designed as an ethnographic study, this research study examines two Spanish-English dual language bilingual education teachers’ implementation of translanguaging pedagogies and language socialization during the pandemic through the following research questions: (1) What adjustments did the teachers make to their teaching and curriculum to support the students as they navigated the pandemic times? (2) How did the teachers and students use languages in their interaction in blended learning environments? Findings from the 2nd grade Spanish Language Arts and 4th grade Social Studies classes demonstrate that both teachers reported an increased awareness of the importance to integrate translanguaging pedagogies and reflected a translanguaging stance. They also intentionally integrated translanguaging strategies into their teaching through translanguaging design. The 2nd grade teacher invited the students to draw upon their full linguistic repertoires for Spanish literacy development, whereas the 4th grade teacher adopted translanguaging design to make content materials more accessible. Through translanguaging socialization, both teachers socialized the students into and through flexible language use and created a learning environment where students’ linguistic repertoires were valued as a resource for learning.

Language separation policies in two-way bilingual education (TWBE) reflect ideologies of double monolingualism (Heller, 1995) and ignore the sociolinguistic realities of bi/multilingual students (García & Lin, 2017). This case study investigates the design and implementation of collaborative multilingual identity text projects (Prasad, 2018) in a Spanish-English two-way immersion (TWI) school. Identity text pedagogies (Cummins & Early, 2011) that engage bilingual students in creating dual-language multimodal texts have been taken up across a wide variety of contexts. Few studies in the United States, however, have examined how TWI teachers can use multiliteracies pedagogy (New London Group, 1996) with a critical multilingual language awareness (CMLA) focus to move beyond the frame of Spanish-English through the creation of collaborative multilingual and multimodal class books. A thematic analysis of classroom data from our case study demonstrates that implementing critical multilingual multiliteracies projects fostered students’ CMLA while building positive bi/multilingual identities, leveraged students’ linguistic repertoires beyond the language of instruction, and encouraged linguistic risk-taking. This empirical study highlights the possibilities for adopting a collaborative, critical, and creative multilingual multiliteracies approach in TWI settings.

Pupils from the Netherlands and Germany communicate freely with each other switching between communication modes and, thus, using their linguistic repertoire. However, when they perceive that they will be assessed, they express a fear of using their L2/Lx. This fear might be attributed to the monolingual norm prevalent in language education. A plurilingual approach, on the contrary, such as inclusive multilingualism (Backus et al. 2013) [“Inclusive Multilingualism: Concept, Modes and Implications.” European Journal of Applied Linguistics 1 (2): 179–215], might lead to a better communicative competence and the experience of more confidence. In order to develop such an inclusive approach to language learning, it is necessary to analyse plurilingual conversations between pupils from the Netherlands and Germany to answer the questions (1) What communication modes do pupils use when interacting with their peers? (2) Why do they switch between these modes? The results show that all communication modes from the expanded model of inclusive multilingualism (Laurentzen, Jentges, and van Mulken 2024) [““Dürfen wir uns aussuchen, welche Sprache wir spreken in de presentatie?” Inklusive Mehrsprachigkeit in Gesprächen zwischen Schüler:innen aus Deutschland und den Niederlanden.” Zeitschrift für Interaktionsforschung in DaFZ 4 (1): 75–96] were used. Reasons for switching were mainly socially motivated, such as adaption to the partner. Shifting away from the monolingual norm that currently dominates language teaching and adopting a plurilingual perspective on language learning could empower pupils to fully utilise their linguistic repertoire in plurilingual contexts, whether or not they are being assessed.

ABSTRACTThe student body is becoming increasingly diverse in terms of language, nationality and cultural background. This study explores ways in which such linguistic diversity can be harnessed in the language classroom to enhance the language learning process. This paper describes a series of activities which were designed and implemented in four higher education language classrooms in Ireland. The activities included awareness-raising of the language profile of students taking a particular language module, and facilitated comparison of key grammatical concepts in both the target languages of the groups concerned (German and Japanese) and in the other languages in the participants’ linguistic repertoires. The grammatical concepts included cases, sentence structure, tenses, passive voice and register. Analysis of participant feedback indicates that 36% of the participants were unaware of the other languages spoken by their fellow students prior to participating in the study, with 80% describing such knowledge as valuable to them. More than two-thirds (70%) of participants described the activities as aiding their study of their target language.

This article employs ethnographic methods to investigate communicative practices that shape the linguistic repertoires of child migrants in Agbogbloshie, an urban market in Ghana. Similar studies discuss the relationship between language and migration by focusing on language shift and loss among migrants; this article argues that migrants in complex linguistically diverse spaces—motivated by both social and economic dynamics of their space—make linguistic choices while negotiating their daily lives that lead to the development of complex, heterogeneous linguistic repertoires and practices. Data were gathered from interactions at childcare centers, where child migrants spend the day with peers and caregivers, and migrant homes, where child migrants spend the evenings and weekends with their families. The data reveal that while migrant parents negotiate their own multilingual practices with their migrant children, child migrants expand their linguistic repertoires through relationships and interactions with caregivers and peers in childcare centers and neighborhoods, leading to the development of heterogeneous language practices that neither their parents nor caregivers necessarily possess. The article concludes that migration may lead to complex linguistic diversity. The study contributes to Indigenous perspectives on linguistic diversity and our understanding of the structure and nature of super‐diversification.

ABSTRACTSingapore’s bilingual policy legitimises English not only as the language of governmental administration and interethnic communication, but also as the medium of instruction in all schools on all levels and across all subjects except mother tongues (MTs). As a result of these politics of language recognition, a visible shift has occurred in all ethnic groups away from MTs towards English. To rectify the language shift situation, the government has emphasised that developing bilingualism and raising bilingual children should begin in preschools. In this paper, we examine two top-down official documents: Review of Mother Tongue Languages Report, issued in 2011, and Nurturing Early Learners Framework for Mother Tongue Languages, developed in 2013. Attempting to identify some of the complex factors that influence language shift, we present an intertextual analysis of the Report and the curriculum Framework. In doing so, we compare the consistencies and locate the implicit inconsistencies in the policy position on bilingual education in preschools. We conclude the article by outlining the implications for changing the current bilingual educational models and providing teacher training programmes that maximise the learning opportunities of young bilingual learners.