A scientific base for optimising energy consumption and performance in 3D printing

Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF), also known as Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM), is one of the innovative 3D printing technologies for fabricating complex components and products. Mechanical properties of 3D-printed components mostly depend on intricate process parameters of 3D printing. This study experimentally investigates the effects of four key process parameters, including layer thickness, raster angle, feed rate, and nozzle temperature, on the tensile properties and interfacial bonding behaviours of FFF printed Polylactic Acid (PLA), and their failure mechanisms. The effect of the key parameters on surface roughness is also evaluated, which is critical for enhancing manufacturing and material performance, expecting to provide a potential guide for optimisation of the FFF printing process for improving product quality. The experimental results demonstrate that tensile strength improves up to 10 and 7% with increasing nozzle temperature (200 °C to 220 °C) and low feed rate (60 mm/sec to 40 mm/sec) during the 3D printing process. The tensile strength increases up to 12% with decreasing layer thickness (0.4 mm to 0.2 mm) and 40% with decreasing raster angle (90° to 0°). The experimental findings on surface roughness indicate that FFF-printed PLA samples were significantly influenced by the layer thickness and raster angle, and an improvement in surface roughness is observed with the increase of nozzle temperature and reduction in feed rate. Microstructural SEM analysis was conducted to investigate the ruptured surfaces of the FFF printed PLA samples, focusing on the interlayer bonding quality and morphological characteristics including the effect of void formation, poor adhesion, and insufficient fusion between adjacent surface contact area with the effect of printing parameters. The feed rate and nozzle temperature were found to substantially influence the interlayer bonding between two adjacent surfaces.

3D printing has emerged as an appealing technology for designing and manufacturing bioresorbable stents. This innovative technology enables the creation of a diverse range of stent structures with specific features and intricate geometries, significantly impacting their mechanical properties and potentially affect clinical performance. In this study, we investigated the influence of various processing parameters during the 3D printing process and assess their effects on stent quality. Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) was chosen as the 3D printing technology, with a focus on optimizing the printing of a novel chevron-strut stent design. Printing parameters were systematically investigated to understand their individual contributions to overall stent quality. The findings reveal the significance of print speed (6.5 mm/s) as a pivotal factor, influencing strut width and the difference between the Computer Aided Design (CAD) volume to calculated volume of stent. Furthermore, the optimization of printing parameters such as travel speed (200 mm/s), and line width (0.2 mm) led to the fabrication of stent with strut widths of 400 μm. However, it is important to also consider other parameters for comprehensive print optimization. In conclusion, by exercising control over the print process parameters, it becomes feasible to produce stents that closely align with the original CAD designs.

The global shift toward sustainable manufacturing has intensified interest in eco-friendly materials and optimized processing strategies for additive manufacturing technologies such as Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM). Polylactic acid (PLA)-based green composites have emerged as promising candidates due to their biodegradability, low environmental impact, and compatibility with FDM systems. However, the optimization of FDM process parameters for such composites remains a significant challenge due to the inherent trade-offs between mechanical performance, energy consumption, and material sustainability. This study addresses this gap by employing an integrated multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) framework—Fuzzy Analytic Hierarchy Process (Fuzzy AHP) combined with Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS)—to identify optimal FDM parameter settings for PLA-based green composites. Key process parameters, including layer thickness, print speed, infill density, and nozzle temperature, are evaluated against performance criteria such as tensile strength, surface finish, material utilization, and energy efficiency. Literature reports suggest optimal ranges such as 0.1–0.2 mm for layer thickness, 40–60 mm/s for print speed, and 80–100% for infill density to enhance part strength and minimize waste. The Fuzzy AHP–TOPSIS approach enables robust decision-making under uncertainty, providing a sustainable design methodology aligned with SDGs 4 (Quality Education), 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy), 9 (Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure), and 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production). This study establishes a foundational framework for future experimental validation and promotes informed parameter selection for sustainable, high-performance FDM manufacturing of PLA-based green composites.

Three-dimensional printing is a rapidly developing area of technology and manufacturing in the field of oral surgery. The aim of this study was comparison of presurgical models made by two different types of three-dimensional (3D) printing technology. Digital reference models were printed 10 times using fused deposition modelling (FDM) and digital light processing (DLP) techniques. All 3D printed models were scanned using a technical scanner. The trueness, linear measurements, and printing time were evaluated. The diagnostic models were compared with the reference models using linear and mean deviation for trueness measurements with computer software. Paired t-tests were performed to compare the two types of 3D printing technology. A P value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. For FDM printing, all average distances between the reference points were smaller than the corresponding distances measured on the reference model. For the DLP models, the average distances in the three measurements were smaller than the original. Only one average distance measurement was greater. The mean deviation for trueness was 0.1775 mm for the FDM group and 0.0861 mm for the DLP group. Mean printing time for a single model was 517.6 minutes in FDM technology and 285.3 minutes in DLP. This study confirms that presurgical models manufactured with FDM and DLP technologies are usable in oral surgery. Our findings will facilitate clinical decision-making regarding the best 3D printing technology to use when planning a surgical procedure.

Fused deposition modelling (FDM) is a popular additive manufacturing process used for rapid prototyping and the production of complex geometries. Despite its popularity, FDM’s susceptibility to variations in numerous process parameters can significantly impact the quality, design, functionality, and mechanical properties of 3D printed parts. This study explores thirteen FDM process parameters and their influence on the mechanical properties of polylactic acid (PLA) polymer, encompassing surface roughness, warpage, tensile and bending strength, elongation at break, deformation, and microhardness. The optimum parameters were identified alongside key contributors by applying the Taguchi method, signal-to-noise ratios, and analysis of variances (ANOVA). Notably, specific FDM parameters significantly affect the surface profile, with layer thickness contributing 32.65% and fan speed contributing 8.59% to the observed variations. Similarly, warping values show notable influence from nozzle temperature (29.53%), wall thickness (16.74%), layer thickness (16.56%), and retraction distance (12.80%). Tensile strength is primarily determined by wall thickness (31.83%), followed by infill percentage (26.73%) and infill pattern (16.18%). Elongation at break predominantly correlates with wall thickness (44.82%), with a supplementary contribution from nozzle temperature (10.90%). Microhardness lacks a dominant parameter. Bending strength variations primarily arise from layer thickness (38%), wall thickness (37.6%), and infill percentage (9.17%). Deformation tendencies are influenced by layer thickness (19.20%), print speed (11.37%), wall thickness, and fan speed (10.9% each). The optimized dataset of FDM process parameters was then employed in two prediction models: multiple-regression and artificial neural network (ANN). Evaluation based on the correlation coefficient (R2) and root mean squared error (RMSE) indicates that the ANN model outperforms the multiple-regression approach. The results indicate that precise control of FDM parameters, coupled with ANN predictions, facilitates the fabrication of 3D printed parts with the desired mechanical characteristics.

Fused filament fabrication is a rapidly growing 3D printing technique with the ability to produce functional components with complex shapes. The mechanical characteristics of 3D-printed parts are significantly influenced by various process parameters such as layer thickness, infill density, and nozzle temperature, which can influence part's parameters in conflicting ways. This research focuses on identifying the optimum settings for fused filament fabrication of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene. Specifically, the dimensional deviations, mechanical and abrasive wear properties of printed specimens are investigated. Experiments were designed using the Taguchi method with an L9 orthogonal array, to vary the three factors systematically. The results were analysed using analysis of variance, the Taguchi signal-to-noise ratio, and the regression analysis, with multi-response optimisation performed via desirability function analysis. The optimal balance of all three properties was achieved with infill density = 23%, layer thickness = 0.25 mm, and nozzle temperature = 240°C. This work provides a systematic, statistically validated method for multi-criteria optimisation in fused filament fabrication, offering practical guidance for producing acrylonitrile butadiene styrene components that meet multiple performance requirements simultaneously.

Recent developments in three-dimensional (3D) printing technology offer immense potential in fabricating scaffolds and implants for various biomedical applications, especially for bone repair and regeneration. As the availability of autologous bone sources and commercial products is limited and surgical methods do not help in complete regeneration, it is necessary to develop alternative approaches for repairing large segmental bone defects. The 3D printing technology can effectively integrate different types of living cells within a 3D construct made up of conventional micro- or nanoscale biomaterials to create an artificial bone graft capable of regenerating the damaged tissues. This article reviews the developments and applications of 3D printing in bone tissue engineering and highlights the numerous conventional biomaterials and nanomaterials that have been used in the production of 3D-printed scaffolds. A comprehensive overview of the 3D printing methods such as stereolithography (SLA), selective laser sintering (SLS), fused deposition modeling (FDM), and ink-jet 3D printing, and their technical and clinical applications in bone repair and regeneration has been provided. The review is expected to be useful for readers to gain an insight into the state-of-the-art of 3D printing of bone substitutes and their translational perspectives.

Fused filament fabrication (FFF) has been extensively studied for conventional polymers, but there are few studies that address the processing challenges for biobased, biodegradable polymers such as poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and poly(hydroxy alkenoates) (PHA) in FFF processes. This study has investigated the elongational and shear rheological properties and thermophysical characteristics of PLA/PHA hybrid materials to determine the effects of processing conditions, including nozzle temperatures, bed temperatures, and speeds, on the quality of the PLA/PHA printed products, e.g., adhesion strength and tensile properties. Our findings showed that adding PHA to the composition of the PLA/PHA hybrid material leads to a reduction in shear and extensional viscosities, causing a rise in elongation at break and adhesion strength while showing comparable tensile strength with the PLA samples. In addition to the presence of PHA in the combination of the hybrid materials, processing conditions, including nozzle temperature, bed temperature, and print speed, were found to be effective on the adhesion strength and tensile characteristics of the printed products. Our results suggested that among processing parameters, nozzle temperature has the most significant effect on adhesion strength and tensile characteristics. Samples printed at the nozzle temperature of 215 °C showed an order of magnitude higher adhesion strength and up to 34% enhancement in elongation at break compared to the printed samples at 185 °C. This study sheds light on the significance of the material and processing parameters in obtaining quality products from biobased, biodegradable polymers.

Additive manufacturing (AM), also known as 3D printing, has been showing significant growth in recent years. Due to the several advantages, these processes provide, such as high process speed, the possibility for non-conventional geometries and a large range of materials; AM is quickly becoming an industry standard for both prototyping and end-user products. There are several 3D printing technologies available in the market, the most prevalent being fused deposition modeling (FDM), also known by fused filament fabrication (FFF). FDM is widely used as it is highly versatile and has the lowest entry level cost of any AM technology. Due to the layer-by-layer nature of the production procedure, 3D printed materials tend to behave with highly anisotropic properties. The main aspect that governs the anisotropy in FDM is the printing orientation. In order to study these effects, as well as select the optimal materials for future work, bulk specimens were produced from three different materials: polylactic acid (PLA), polycarbonate (PC), and thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU). These specimens were then submitted to tensile testing. In this work, the printing orientations used to manufacture the tested materials were 0°, 45°, and 90° for 100% line infill, with the bulk specimens being produced flat on the printing bed. Steps were taken to prevent layer adhesion failure as well as optimize the production of flexible materials, in this case TPU. The results were then compared with the specifications given by the supplier for FDM and with the raw material properties found in the literature. As expected, for all the specimens, infill orientation played a major role on both tensile strength and elongation. With the results presented in this work, it was possible to select TPU and PC as the most interesting materials to combine, given their broadly different properties. As for future work, a multi-material specimen will be produced, varying the percentage of each material as well as the placement and distribution on the testing bulk.

Biomimetic robots borrow their structure, senses and behavior from animals, such as humans or insects, and plants. Biomimetic design is design ofa machine, a robot or a system in engineeringdomain thatmimics operational and/orbehavioral model of a biological system in nature. 3D printing technology has another name as rapid prototyping technology. Currently it is being developed fastly and widely and is applied in many fields like the jewelry, footwear, industrial design, architecture, engineering and construction, automotive, aerospace, dental and medical industry, education, geographic information system, civil engineering, guns. 3D printing technology is able to manufacture complicated, sophisticated details that the traditional processing method cannot manufacture. Therefore, 3D printing technology can be seen as an effective tool in biomimetic, which can accurately simulate most of the biological structure. Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) is a technology of the typical rapid prototyping. The main content of the article is the focusing on tensile strength test of the ABS-Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene material after using Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) technology, concretization after it’s printed by UP2! 3D printer. The article focuses on two basic features which are Tensile Strength and Determination of flexural properties.

An integrated approach to investigate the energy consumption for manufacturing and surface finishing 3D printed Inconel 718 parts

This study evaluates the accuracy of drill guides fabricated in medical-grade, biocompatible materials for static, computer-aided implant surgery (sCAIS). The virtually planned drill guides of ten completed patient cases were printed (n = 40) using professional (Material Jetting (MJ)) and consumer-level three-dimensional (3D) printing technologies, namely, Stereolithography (SLA), Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF), and Digital Light Processing (DLP). After printing and post-processing, the drill guides were digitized using an optical scanner. Subsequently, the drill guide’s original (reference) data and the surface scans of the digitized 3D-printed drill guide were superimposed to evaluate their incongruencies. The accuracy of the 3D-printed drill guides was calculated by determining the root mean square (RMS) values. Additionally, cast models of the planned cases were used to check that the drill guides fitted manually. The RMS (mean ± SD) values for the accuracy of 3D-printed drill guides were—MJ (0.09 ± 0.01 mm), SLA (0.12 ± 0.02 mm), FFF (0.18 ± 0.04 mm), and DLP (0.25 ± 0.05 mm). Upon a subjective assessment, all drill guides could be mounted on the cast models without hindrance. The results revealed statistically significant differences (p < 0.01) in all except the MJ- and SLA-printed drill guides. Although the measured differences in accuracy were statistically significant, the deviations were negligible from a clinical point of view. Within the limits of this study, we conclude that consumer-level 3D printers can produce surgical guides with a similar accuracy to a high-end, professional 3D printer with reduced costs.

This study evaluates the three-dimensional (3D) printing materials used in Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) printing technology. 3D printing technology has been developing strongly, becoming an effective support tool in production and research. The 3D printing process involves many stages, with many parameters affecting the quality and properties of the product, in which 3D printing material is one of many essential factors affecting that process. The study conducts a comprehensive assessment of the most common materials in 3D printing technology to determine the advantages and limitations of precisely five types of materials: Polylactic acid, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene, polyethylene terephthalate glycol-modified, thermoplastic polyurethane, and acrylonitrile styrene acrylate. With 3D printing, parameters such as sintering temperature, printing speed, and layer thickness are kept constant. These parameters are applied equally to all five material samples. The experiment evaluates the tensile strength of materials. The study results provide an overview of the properties and applicability of 3D printing materials, helping to select materials suitable for specific FDM 3D printing technology applications.

Three-dimensional printing technologies are mainly used to build objects with complex shapes and geometry, largely prototypes, and thanks to the possibility of building very thin layers of material with small pores, electrospinning technology allows for the creation of structures with filtration properties, in particular very small particles. The combination of these technologies creates new possibilities for building complex-shape composites that have not been comprehensively tested so far. The article describes the results of research on composites manufactured by combining samples prepared with two 3D printing technologies, Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) and Photo-Curing of Liquid Polymer Resins (PJM) in combination with electrospinning (ES) technology. The surface morphology of composites manufactured from biocompatible materials was investigated using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and contact angle measurements, and chemical composition analysis was studied using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). This approach to creating composites appears to be an alternative to developing research for filtration applications. The article presents basic research illustrating the quality of composites produced by combining two unconventional technologies: 3D printing and electrospinning (ES). The analysis of the research results showed clear differences in the structure of composites produced with the use of various 3D printing technologies. The CLSM analysis showed a much better orientation of the fibers in the MED610 + PAN/gelatin composite, and the measurement of the contact angle and its indirect interpretation also for this composite allows for the conclusion that it will be characterized by a higher value of adhesion force. Moreover, such composites could be used in the future for the construction of filtering devices and in medical applications.

Significant advances in fused deposition modeling (FDM), as well as its myriad applications, have led to its growing prominence among additive manufacturing (AM) technologies. When the technology was first developed, it was used for rapid prototyping to examine and analyze a product in the design stage. FDM facilitates rapid production, requires inexpensive tools, and can fabricate complex-shaped parts; it, therefore, became popular and its use widespread. However, various FDM processing parameters have proven to affect the printed part’s mechanical properties to different extents. The values for the printing process parameters are carefully selected based on the part’s application. This study investigates the effects of four process parameters (raster angle, layer thickness, infill percentage, and printing speed) on the mechanical behavior of printed parts that are based on available literature data. These process parameter’s influence on part’s mechanical properties varies depending on the FDM material. The study focuses on four FDM materials: polylactic acid (PLA), acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), polyether ether ketone (PEEK), and polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PETG). This paper summarizes the state-of-the-art literature to show how sensitive the material’s mechanical properties are to each process parameter. The effect of each parameter on each material was quantified and ranked using analysis of variance (ANOVA). The results show that infill percentage then layer thickness are the most influential process parameter on most of the material’s mechanical properties. In addition, this work identifies gaps in existing studies and highlights opportunities for future research.