A simple method to assess and report thematic saturation in qualitative research.

Determining appropriate sample sizes in qualitative research has traditionally relied on data saturation, lacking predetermined mathematical formulas. Initial efforts by Tullis and Wood introduced basic calculation methods for user experience research, while Yocco proposed preliminary equations for interview-based studies. Balboni further developed these concepts, introducing complexity factors in sample size determination. Building on these foundations, the Benneh-Mensah (BM) Formula integrates study complexity parameters, researcher expertise levels, and statistical confidence intervals into a comprehensive calculation method. Statistical analysis demonstrates strong correlation (r=0.998) between BM Formula and traditional approaches, with no significant differences in moderate to complex studies (t=1.632, p=0.178). The formula provides systematic sample size reductions based on researcher expertise, ranging from 74.8% for advanced researchers to 80.3% for experts. Key findings validate its effectiveness across diverse research contexts, from healthcare to cross-cultural studies. The BM Formula offers a mathematically robust alternative to traditional saturation approaches, enabling precise sample size determination before data collection. Researchers are recommended to implement this formula with appropriate parameter documentation and continuous monitoring of saturation indicators.

Purpose: This study aimed to shed light on students and novice researchers on understanding various sampling techniques in qualitative research and the method for determining sample size in qualitative studies. Methods: A narrative design was used to simplify the understanding of the sampling techniques and the method for determining sample size in qualitative research. Together with the use of secondary sources, the researcher's own experience is used to argue and discuss. Findings: The study identified in detail purposive sampling, convenience sampling, snowball sampling, and quota sampling as common sampling techniques for qualitative research. Furthermore, the study pointed out the concept of data saturation as a key determinant of sample adequacy in qualitative research, and it can be affected by factors such as subjectivism, scope of the research, research design, researchers' experience, and data collection methods. Originality: This study expands the methodological literature coverage on qualitative research, which also serves as a guide to both students and emerging researchers in social science research. Practical Implications: This study enhances the common understanding of emerging researchers on the appropriateness of using various qualitative sampling techniques and sample size determination to achieve qualitative study goals.

This review aimed to answer the question of how many interviews are enough for one qualitative research? The question ‘how many interviews are enough for one qualitative research is persistently controversial among qualitative researchers in social science. For this frequently occurring question especially among novice practitioners, the majority of scholars are opted to say no universally guiding rule to decide on a required number of sample for qualitative research rather ‘it depends’. But, this also raises another insight among researchers urging them to look for different things, i.e., on what circumstance would be making a decision about the required number of respondents depend? Though we lack one guideline dictating researchers how to decide on the number of sample size, the majority of researchers agree on one reasonable answer this is ‘it depends’. Indeed, in our work, we endeavor to identify, on what it depends? We also attempted to figure out or indicate the commonly referred range of sample size in qualitative research. Generally when we sum up our review work, the decision on “How many” is depended on several factors among which the following are some; the focus of the research, the type of research question, available resource and time, institutional committee requirements, the judgments of epistemic community in which a researcher is located, the nature of the selected group, the domain of inquiry, the experience of the researcher with qualitative research, and so on. Specific to number 20-60 is the most frequently observed range of sample size in qualitative research which of course is determined by the aforementioned factors.

ABSTRACTIn his detailed response to our paper on sample size in qualitative research, Norman Blaikie raises important issues concerning conceptual definitions and taxonomy. In particular, he points out the problems associated with a loose, generic application of adjectives such as ‘qualitative’ or ‘inductive’. We endorse this concern, though we suggest that in some specific contexts a broad categorization may be more appropriate than a more nuanced distinction – provided that it is clear in which sense the terms are employed. However, other concepts, such as saturation, do not lend themselves to generic use, and require a more detailed conceptualization. Blaikie’s analysis also makes it clear that meaningful discussion of sample size in qualitative research cannot occur with reference to an undifferentiated conception of the nature of qualitative research; clear distinctions need to be made within this approach in terms of methodology, ontological and epistemological assumptions and broader research paradigms.

This study explored the reasons and lived experiences of 20 Filipino teacher respondents in the school year 2023-2024. The qualitative method through phenomenological research was adopted. It is the method of discovering and structuring the meaning of human incidents through interviews with people involved in the real-life experience (Creswell, 2007; Polit & Beck, 2012). Patton (2002) describes that determining sample size in qualitative research does not follow one rule. There is no one rule related to sample size when using a qualitative research design. The respondents expressed heart-warming and overwhelming insights into their acculturation in the USA and Southeast Asian countries. Homesickness was the only negative thought, but it was easily overcome due to the availability of social media, which established the communication link with family members. Teaching abroad served as the turning point as their personal and professional “inputs” were outweighed by the “outputs” in terms of financial benefits, perks, and other work-life balance initiatives by schools abroad. Hence, the Department of Education should improve the economic conditions of teachers to avoid the exodus of a greater number of trained teachers in the service years ahead.

<div class="WordSection1"><p>I am honored for being an alumnus of KEMC, and am delighted to write this editorial for the Annals. I have, ever since done my research and taught qualitative methods, felt that clinical methods are quite akin to qualitative research. Then, why only few clinical researchers use qualitative methods? A witness to this assumption is the research published in the Annals. In this treatise, I try to identify some parallels between the two types of methods and argue for the clinicians to invest in learning qualitative research methods to practice clinical methods well.</p><p> Qualitative research is to identify and interpret issues from the perspective of participants, their experience of: illness or disability, using health service, and to appreciate the meanings they give to the behaviour, events or objects in the context of their social and cultural norms. In this type of research, the emphasis is on exploring the associations and understanding the phenomenon in its holism; and not, like in quantitative research, from an outsider’s perspective and for certain specific aspects.<sup>1</sup> It requires participants with specific characteristics, selected purposely that can best inform the research topic. More participants, identified inductively during data collection, are added to develop full and multiple perspectives about the cases.<sup>2</sup></p><p> No preset data collection tool is used, instead qualitative researcher guided by a research question acts as an instrument, since the line of enquiry he changes during data collection as new understanding is gained and/or the situation changes.<sup>3</sup> The data for research is derived from the observation, interviews or verbal interactions, focus group discussions, document reviews, life histories etc. and the researcher asks why, how and under what circumstances things occur; and not just what, where and when. It is recorded in words or pictures and log book is used to record notes arising from interviews, observations, extracts from documents etc.</p><p> In health care settings patients are the subjects for clinical methods. The clinician, even prior to any verbal communication, observes the patient, e.g. for his gait and appearance. If in a bed or examination couch, his posture could give some clue to the illness. Inspection, a clinical method, is like systematic observation, which is qualitative method, should be holistic. In my third year during bedside teaching, Professor (late) Rashid Ahmed Qureshi said, <em>“patient has come to you as a whole and not his stomach in a tray”</em>, when a student straight went to examine abdomen of a patient with acute abdomen. History taking, another clinical method, is like conducting semi structured in depth interview – a qualitative research method. In both disciplines, we are told, <em>“not to ask leading, but follow up and probing questions”; </em>and Professor (late) Alamgir Khan, while teaching clinical methods, would add, <em>“if a good history is taken, you will establish diagnosis in over 65% of cases”. </em>Likewise, as part of history taking, documents related to patient’s illness history and treatment are reviewed similar to document review in qualitative research.</p><p> The two approaches however differ in how the data is analysed. In clinical practice, diagnosis is established based on the pathophysiological knowledge or patient’s clinical condition is discussed in clinicopathological conference.<sup>4</sup> On the other hand, qualitative research employs meaning based data analysis, whereby the qualitative data is transformed into some form of explanation, understanding or interpretation of people and situation that is investigated.<sup>5,6</sup></p><p> In conclusion, the history, the observation and the review of document related to patient are since obtainned using qualitative methods, the clinician trained in these methods could not only conduct these methods well but also interpret the data to identify and detect obstacles to the change in clinical condition and the reasons why improvement does or does not occur.<sup>7</sup> Finally, while it is heartening that research forums are organised in the institutions affiliated with KEMU, in order the research is richer, the researchers’ skills in qualitative research methods should be built.</p></div>

The purpose of this focused issue is to advance understanding of qualitative research methods in the international business context. Debates on qualitative research methods in the key international business (IB) journals have been rare. There has been no focused issue on this topic previously, either in mir or in other journals in the field, making this a 'special' issue. During the process of editing a recent handbook on qualitative research methods (Marschan-Piekkari/Welch 2004), we realized that while this collection covered many topics, often for the first time in the IB field, there were many others still outstanding. There was thus scope for continuing a dialogue about qualitative methods in the IB research community. The challenge of making qualitative research count in the quantitative world of IB remains. Qualitative research is difficult to define, since the term encompasses many different research traditions, research strategies and methods for data collection and analysis (Prasad 2005). A typical definition is that everything non-numerical is qualitative research (Marschan-Piekkari/Welch 2004, p. 19). However, even this very simplistic definition soon breaks down, since research strategies which are typically considered to be qualitative, such as case studies, can combine numerical with non-numerical data (Hurmerinta-Peltomaki/Nummela 2004). There is also no clear divide between qualitative and quantitative research in terms of research traditions, with much qualitative research in management and IB sharing the positivist assumptions of quantitative research (Prasad/Prasad 2002). This focused issue is not about reporting the empirical findings of IB studies applying qualitative methods; rather it is about the process of undertaking qualitative research in the IB field. Of course, there is a large volume of literature on qualitative research methods already. However, we would argue that the IB context warrants special treatment. As the authors of this focused issue discuss, the distinctiveness of the field stems from its multiple linguistic and cultural settings; organizational complexity; and its intellectual roots in post-War academic institutions in the USA. These issues receive little treatment in general texts on qualitative methodology. There has been some methodological debate in previous issues of mir. Earlier articles in mircan be grouped into three categories: first, reviews of existing methodological practices in IB publications (e.g., Cavusgil/Das 1997, Nasif et al. 1991); second, proposals for new quantitative techniques (e.g., the use of key informants in cross-cultural studies, as proposed by Lenartowicz and Roth 2004 and a linguistic-based measure of cultural distance as developed by West and Graham 2004); and third, calls for new methodological approaches (Boddewyn/Iyer 1999). The absence of qualitative research methods in this debate perhaps reflects the limited amount of empirical qualitative research published in this journal. A recent analysis of mir issues between 1990 and 1999 revealed that only 5 percent of articles published in this period used qualitative methods (Welch/Welch 2004). This focused issue is therefore a response to those, such as Boddewyn and Iyer (1999) in this journal, who have called for alternatives to surveys and secondary data analysis. This focused issue attracted 39 submissions from more than 15 countries. Given that there have been limited outlets for methodological articles in IB, this is a considerable number. It perhaps suggests a level of interest to which IB journals have not responded to date. Of the total number of submissions, 11 were selected for review. On the basis of reviewers' comments, six of these papers were ultimately rejected. The final five papers underwent two and, in some cases, up to four rounds of revisions. In selecting the articles, we used the following criteria: appropriateness of the topic for the focused issue; demonstrated knowledge of IB and methodological literature; quality of argument; originality and innovativeness of the contribution to IB methodology; organization and clarity of the paper; and potential application to research practice in IB. …

Determining an appropriate sample size is a marker of the quality of qualitative research. However, there is currently no consensus on how to achieve the size of such a sample. There are no clear methods and rules to guide researchers in achieving an appropriate sample size. In most qualitative investigations, determining the sample size is a matter of judgment, with the researcher following different landmarks to assess whether or not his or her own study sample is appropriate. This article aims to identify the main parameters that influence the researcher's decision to determine the appropriate sample size in qualitative research.

Qualitative and Mixed Methods Research in Cross-Cultural Psychology

Qualitative and mixed methods research in trials

Qualitative research has an important place within evidence-based health care (EBHC), contributing to policy on patient safety and quality of care, supporting understanding of the impact of chronic illness, and...

Who is sensitising whom? A participatory interview guide development as an awareness tool within a health care research project

Chapter 1: World Views, Paradigms, and the Practice of Social Science Research Case 1. Quantitative Research Case 2. Qualitative Research Thinking about the Foundations and Practice of Research What This Book Is and Is Not About. What Warrants Our Attention? The Traditional Canon Alternative Paradigms New Techniques or New Paradigms? Chapter 2: History and Context of Paradigm Development Positivism: A Response to Metaphysical and Magical Explanations Critical Theory: A Response to Inequities in Society Interpretivism: A Response to the Excesses of Scientific Social Science The Special Cases of Postmodernism and Feminism Chapter 3: Foundational Issues: Postpositivist and Critical Perspectives Social Science Research: The View from the Postpositivist Paradigm Social Science Research: The View from the Critical Theory Paradigm Chapter 4: History and Foundations of Interpretivist Research (1) Nature of Reality. (2) Purpose of Research. (3) Acceptable Methodology/Data. (4) The Meaning of Data (5) Relationship of Research to Practice. The Implications of an Interpretivist Approach What Sorts of Research are Worthwhile? Examples of Interpretive Research Chapter 5: Frameworks for Qualitative Research Postpositivist Research Moments of Qualitative Research Some General Frameworks for Qualitative Research Chapter 6: General Guidelines for Qualitative Research Guidelines for Qualitative Research Situated or Contextual Understanding, Not Truth, is the Purpose of Research Accept Multiple Sources of Influence Take A Foundational Rather Than Technique Perspective Practice Recursive (Iterative ) and Emergent Data Collection and Analysis Use Multiple Sources of Data Think of Research as a Reflective Process The Researcher is the Primary Tool for Data Collection and Analysis An Emphasis on Participatory versus Nonparticipatory Research. Adopt an Open Approach Deal With Bias Directly Select Natural Contexts for Research Research Should be Holistic, Not Atomistic Research Involves More Than Induction and Deduction: Analogical Reasoning, Abduction, and Family Resemblances Alternatives to Postpositivist Criteria for Believability: Validity and Reliability Alternative Approaches to Validity and Reliability: Triangulation and More Conclusions? Aren't They Generalizations? Chapter 7: Methods of Qualitative Research Case 1: Action Research on a Pediatric Surgical Ward Established Qualitative Research Methods Ethnography Case Studies: Another Form of Qualitative Observation Interview Research Historigraphy Historiography: The Research Methods of History Innovative Methods Participatory Qualitative Research Emancipatory Research Critical Emancipatory Action Research Chapter 8: Approaches to Data Analysis and Intepretation The Purpose of Research General Theory Objective Description Hermeneutic (Verstehen) Understanding Story telling/Narrative Data Analysis Families Eyeballing the Data Connoisseurship: A Global Perspective Hermeneutics as a Data Analysis Method Grounded Theory Analytic Induction A Final Topic: The Ethics of Research Chapter 9: 21st Century Social Science: Peering into the Future Will the Cacophony Continue? Why Can't Social Science Converge on The Answer? Competition Linearity Dialog as an Alternative to Competition Three Approaches to Knowing in Greek Thought Plato Aristotle The Humanities Choices 20th Century Social Science Made Suppose We Chose Badly Two Theories That May Help Us Build 21st Century Social Science Poetic Logic Chaos and Complexity Theory: Another Route to a Nonlinea Social Science

The study aims to explore the phenomenological study method, data collection procedures and analysis, followed by how and in which position the saturation is achieved. Phenomenological approach has been employed to explore the perceptions of stakeholders through sharing their experiences. Using snowball sampling procedures, data have been collected from 10 respondents through face-to-face semi-structured interviews. For the data analysis, this study has adopted the inductive thematic approach. In the interview process, the researcher focused on the respondents’ understanding of the commercial banks' money lending activity. The findings of the study show that different stakeholders have a different perception on commercial banks' money lending activity. Respondents have a common understanding but explained it differently as they experienced it. The common academic background of the respondents plays a role in the common understanding and thus, it helps to achieve the data saturation point for each research question separately. Money creation through the commercial banks' money lending activity has a potential threat of financial crisis but the strong role of Bank Negara Malaysia (BNM) can ease this tension. This perception comes from the data saturation point on the basis of the respondents understanding on the research phenomenon. The study has potential implications on the qualitative research method, and phenomenological study method, data collection procedures and analysis followed by how and on which position the saturation is achieved. The current study may have several contributions to the existing literature in qualitative research. This study may assist researchers on how to reach the saturation point for heterogeneous data. Step by step process on data selection and interview approach can guide to achieving the data saturation point. Future research can take this study as an input to develop the qualitative research model for the heterogeneous data. In addition, a follow-up interview approach may help to get comprehensive data collection that can also assist to achieve data saturation point.

Social network is a very important aspect for the farmers to find the customers, finding a good offer price, finding a wide market and dominates the local market of their products. Therefore, the main objective of this research is to examine the types of social network used by these farmers in finding market. This study was conducted at District of Serian, Sarawak, Malaysia. This research employed abductive research strategy where the types of social network are constructed by the cattle farmers themselves based on their own experience and knowledge after being involved in cattle farming for 10 years. Data were collected using in-depth interviews and non-participant observation. Most of the interviews carried out took between two to three hours; however, some of the interviews took quite a long time. Sample size in this research was determined based on data saturation. Therefore, a total of nine people were chosen as informants in the study using purposive sampling and snowball sampling. Validity and reliability of the research data were determined using member check approach. All the interviews was transcribed and formatted to be entered into the Nvivo database and will be used to create categories and to index the data. Findings of the study showed that seven types of social network were used by the cattle farmers in the rural areas in marketing their livestock, namely through networks of family ties, friends, friends of friends, advertisements, radio, type of language and wholesalers. The seven types of social network are viewed to have helped them in maintaining their status quo as successful cattle farmers. DOI: 10.5901/mjss.2015.v6n5s1p269