A Systematic Review on Recent Pedagogical Principles for Designing Digital Learning Environments: Proposing the SAFE Model

Using online digital media is increasingly the primary form in which young people will access information and entertainment – even at the age of 3 to 4 years of age, approximately half the children in the United Kingdom now have access to a tablet device to access online content whilst almost a quarter of 8 to 11 year olds have a social media profile (Ofcom, 2017). Digital online networks have altered much of society, enabling increased access to multimedia information, interactive content and communities on both a local and global scale. When knowledge is increasingly seen as existing in networks, and learning as forming and navigating these networks, many existing aspects of education are perceived to be subject to change (Siemens, 2005; Mitra, 2006; Downes, 2012). It might be argued that the attributes of digital environments facilitate patterns of learning more appropriate for an information society that requires creativity, divergent thinking and lifelong learning, enabling an ability to adapt to the rapid changes that typify a post-industrial world (Florida, 2006; Robinson, 2010). Pupils’ immersion in digital media and online networks means they inevitably expect education to be a participative, engaging, and active environment (Dede, 2005). Moreover, evidence suggests that pupils’ motivation and attainment can be improved with the intervention of digital learning strategies (Underwood, 2009; Baytak, Tarman and Ayas, 2011; Mitra and Crawley, 2014; Education Endowment Foundation, 2018). However, digital strategies for learning have been met with criticism and a cautious reception. It has been suggested that the use of digital strategies undermines the teaching profession, making the role of the teacher increasingly obsolete whilst reducing learners to passive receptacles of information, subject to instrumental targets and assessment, which fail to develop deeper levels of understanding (Bauerlein, 2009; Oppenheimer, 2004; Carr, 2011; Selwyn, 2014). Prominent theories of digital learning are contested for failing to provide a sufficient explanation of learning and the role of human agency within the process. This chapter therefore explores whether digital learning theories, strategies and environments enhance or limit pupils’ learning and to what extent the role of the teacher is still important in learners’ development.

The change from in-person to in-home schooling and the rapid digitalization of the system impacted the access to education and the quality of the outcomes during the pandemic, but the extent to which digital measures helped school administrators to face that impact is difficult to understand without hearing from them directly. To give those who had to adapt to digital learning some voice, this report discusses the experiences of one national education policy expert, one Learning Resources Coordinator in a public school in Northern Chile, and one Technology Coordinator in an elite private school in Santiago during the process of adapting to digital learning. The goal of these semi-structured interviews was to explore the different digital learning strategies among systems and regions at the school-home level, to then compare them with the national vision and the information that official documents and Aprendo en línea provide. The interviews took place from November, 2020, to February, 2021, right between the end of Chile’s 2020 school year and the beginning of the 2021 one.
 The findings of the exploration indicate that school administrations, but also the type and position of schools within the education system, determined which digital strategy schools adopted and how successful it was. They further revealed the social disparities that prevailed by the lack of digital tools, but also new socio-educational challenges. In all, current Chilean officers stood out as the ones accountable for addressing the digital divide, which in this case can be understood as those who learned how to use digital tools (US National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA), 1999), and those who are learning to create them.

Aim/Purpose: To explore the effectiveness of utilizing the design thinking approach in developing digital self-directed learning environment to enhance digital literacy skills in Thai higher education. Background: To foster digital literacy skills in higher education, Thai students require more than access to technology. Emphasizing digital self-directed learning and incorporating Design Thinking approach, can empower students to learn and develop their digital skills effectively. This study explores the impact of digital self-directed learning environment, developed using a design thinking approach, on enhancing digital literacy skills among higher education students in Thailand. Methodology: The research methodology involves developing a digital self-directed learning environment, collecting and analyzing data, and using statistical analysis to compare the outcomes between different groups. The sample includes 60 undergraduate students from the School of Industrial Education and Technology at King Mongkut Institute of Technology, divided into a control group (n=30) and an experimental group (n=30). Data analysis involves mean, standard deviation, and one-way MANOVA. Contribution: This research contributes to the evidence supporting the use of Design Thinking in developing digital self-directed learning environment, demonstrating its effectiveness in meeting learners’ needs and improving learning outcomes in higher education. Findings: Key findings include: 1) the digital media and self-directed learning activities plan developed through the design thinking approach received high-quality ratings from experts, with mean scores of 4.87 and 4.93, respectively; and 2) post-lesson comparisons of learning outcome and digital literacy assessment scores revealed that the group utilizing digital media with self-directed learning activities had significantly higher mean scores than the traditional learning group, with a significance level of 0.001. Recommendations for Practitioners: Practitioners in higher education should use design thinking to develop digital self-directed learning environments that enhance digital literacy skills. This approach involves creating high-quality digital media and activities, promoting engagement and improved outcomes. Collaboration and stakeholder involvement are essential for effective implementation. Recommendation for Researchers: Researchers should continue to explore the effectiveness of design thinking approaches in the development of learning environments, as well as their influence on different educational aspects such as student engagement, satisfaction, and overall learning outcomes. Impact on Society: By enhancing digital literacy skills among higher education students, this study contributes to the development of a digitally skilled workforce, encourages lifelong learning, and aids individuals in effectively navigating the challenges of the digital era. Future Research: Future research could explore a broader range of student demographics and educational settings to validate the effectiveness of the Design Thinking approach in enhancing digital literacy. This could include integrating design thinking with alternative digital learning and teaching methods to further improve digital literacy.

The integration of interactive web-based learning media is essential to address challenges in teaching hydrocarbon materials at SMAN 1 Sungai Pinang. Traditional teaching methods, while effective, often lack student engagement, motivation, and interactivity. This study explores the need for digital learning tools to enhance chemistry education. A needs analysis was conducted through surveys and questionnaires to assess student and teacher perceptions regarding existing teaching methods. The validity and reliability of the questionnaire were confirmed to ensure accurate data collection. The study also examined school facilities and academic challenges that impact the implementation of interactive learning. Findings indicate that well-equipped school facilities support the adoption of interactive and digital learning strategies. While traditional methods remain beneficial, a blended learning approach is necessary to optimize student engagement and academic performance. The study also highlights various academic and non-academic challenges faced by students, necessitating further support and development. Regular evaluation of teaching strategies is crucial to adapting to students' evolving needs. The study underscores the importance of interactive web-based learning media in improving teaching effectiveness and student engagement. The findings suggest that supplementing traditional methods with digital tools can enhance comprehension and motivation. This study supports the development of interactive digital learning media to complement traditional chemistry instruction. Implementing blended learning strategies can address current educational challenges, fostering a more engaging and effective learning environment.

This article explores the lived experiences of two academics in a UK Higher Education Institution who have embedded digital learning approaches within their curriculum delivery. Achieving student excellence can be impeded by a lack of engagement and sense of identity on large courses. Digital learning strategies can offer opportunities to overcome these challenges by empowering students to engage self-confidently. Through an evaluation of the authors’ own experiences of using social media, polling and web-conferencing software, the article shows how interacting with students via a range of learning technologies can create more inclusive and engaging learning environments. Including feedback from students within this article provides evidence that diversification of communication within teaching and learning practice gives students more choice and opportunity to interact with both their peers and teaching staff. The article concludes with recommendations for embedding technology, whilst acknowledging the well-established value of face-to-face interaction.

Purpose This study examines the relative influence of psychological factors (digital literacy, motivation, self-efficacy, learning strategies) and prior academic performance (GPA) on final academic achievement. Using regression analysis on data from 84 Indonesian university students, we found that GPA was the only significant predictor (ß = 45.398, p < 0.001), explaining 51.16% of variance in final scores. Surprisingly, psychological constructs showed no significant effects. The findings challenge conventional emphasis on non-cognitive factors and highlight the enduring importance of prior academic performance in predicting student success. Design/methodology/approach This study utilized a quantitative cross-sectional design with a purposive sample of 84 Indonesian undergraduate Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) students. Data were collected via a self-report survey assessing digital literacy, motivation, self-efficacy, and learning strategies, demonstrating good reliability (Cronbach's a = 0.79–0.88), alongside archival records of cumulative GPA and final scores. Multiple linear regression in RStudio identified GPA as the sole significant predictor of academic achievement (ß = 0.781, p < 0.001). The study adhered to ethical standards using anonymized data; institutional guidelines waived formal approval for this minimal-risk research. Participation was voluntary, with informed consent obtained, ensuring confidentiality through aggregated analysis. Findings The regression analysis revealed that prior academic performance, measured by cumulative GPA, was the only statistically significant predictor of final academic achievement (ß = 0.781, p < 0.001), accounting for 51.16% of the variance in scores. Contrary to prevailing educational perspectives, psychological factors—including digital literacy, motivation, self-efficacy, and learning strategies—showed no significant predictive effects. Gender also did not significantly influence academic outcomes. These results underscore the dominant role of foundational knowledge and academic preparedness, as captured by GPA, in driving student success within this specific Indonesian STEM education context, challenging the emphasis on non-cognitive factors in digital learning environments. Research limitations/implications The generalizability of these findings is limited by the relatively small sample size (N = 84) and its specific focus on Indonesian STEM students, which may restrict applicability to other cultural or disciplinary contexts. The cross-sectional design also precludes causal inferences. Despite these limitations, the study implies that educational interventions should prioritize strengthening foundational academic skills, as reflected by GPA, rather than focusing primarily on psychological factors. For educators and policymakers, this suggests a need to develop early, robust academic support systems. Future research should employ longitudinal designs and larger, more diverse samples to validate these findings and explore the indirect influences of psychological variables on achievement. Practical implications Educators and institutions should utilize students’ prior academic performance (GPA) as a key diagnostic indicator to identify at-risk individuals early. Intervention programs should prioritize reinforcing foundational knowledge and cognitive strategies, particularly in challenging subjects like calculus, rather than focusing solely on boosting motivation or digital literacy. While psychological support remains valuable, it should serve as a complementary tool to facilitate academic skill development. These findings advocate for curriculum designs and teaching methodologies that systematically build and assess core competencies from early educational stages, ensuring students establish a strong academic foundation essential for success in advanced STEM courses. Social implications This study challenges the growing societal tendency to attribute academic success primarily to non-cognitive traits like motivation or resilience, which can inadvertently lead to blaming students for perceived lack of effort rather than addressing systemic educational gaps. By reaffirming the critical role of foundational knowledge—often shaped by early access to quality education—it highlights socioeconomic disparities in academic preparation. The findings advocate for equitable policies that ensure all students, regardless of background, receive robust early instruction to build a strong GPA, which serves as a powerful engine for upward mobility. This shifts responsibility from individual psychology to structural educational support. Originality/value This study provides original empirical evidence from a non-Western context, challenging the dominant Western-centric discourse that prioritizes non-cognitive factors in digital learning environments. Its novelty lies in directly juxtaposing psychological constructs against prior academic performance, revealing GPA's overwhelming predictive power in Indonesian STEM education. The research offers critical value by advocating for a balanced, context-sensitive approach to student success, emphasizing the irreplaceable role of foundational knowledge while acknowledging the indirect potential of psychological factors. This contributes to a more nuanced, globally relevant understanding of educational achievement beyond conventional paradigms.

Cognizant use of technology is essential in offering a pedagogically rich, inclusive, creative and equitable digital learning experience to students. Teachers may need to develop digital skills and competencies that would propagate a constructive and cultural inclusive digital learning environment for orchestrating flexible and activity-oriented learning through synchronous and asynchronous learning tools. This study presents a digital competency framework discerned from a qualitative study on teachers' understandings of digital competencies for digital teaching and learning. Thirty-eight (n=38) teachers completed an online questionnaire as means to elicit beliefs on what constitutes digital competency development for digital teaching and learning. The results revealed six (6) digital competencies and associated sub-competencies that may be perceived as a point of departure for teachers to build on new or extend existing competencies. A reflection on implications around digital content, data and information, pedagogy, creativity and inclusion is perpetuated for optimising and leveraging teaching and learning in a connected and networked digital learning ecosystem.

The transition to a post-conflict nation presents numerous challenges for higher education. This study explores the advantages and impediments of implementing digital learning in Afghan higher education institutions (HEIs). Digital learning in Afghan HEIs currently falls short of stakeholder expectations and requirements. Authorities and key stakeholders, however, have taken measures to address these issues and ensure seamless integration of digital learning into HEIs. Efforts have been made to promote digital learning and improve access to higher education for disadvantaged groups, which could expand educational opportunities and foster diversity, equity, and inclusion, particularly among girls in Afghanistan. Our research employed an interpretive field approach, conducting interviews with 102 participants across 12 Afghan universities—eight public and four privates—to examine the challenges and opportunities associated with digital learning initiatives and inclusive education in a post-conflict setting. We also recommended ways to improve digital learning and promote inclusive education in the country. Our findings provide recommendations for digital and policy strategies to enhance the digital learning experience and promote inclusive education in post-conflict nations. The experiences and lessons learned from Afghan HEIs offer valuable insights for developing more accessible, engaging, and effective online education models.

The rapid advancement of information and communication technology has transformed learning paradigms in higher education, particularly through the implementation of flexible digital learning systems that emphasize student learning autonomy. Higher education institutions providing distance education face challenges in delivering digital learning materials that are not only easily accessible but also capable of sustainably enhancing students’ learning motivation. The research problem addressed in this study focuses on the extent to which the utilization of Android-based digital learning materials influences the learning motivation of students at Universitas Terbuka. The purpose of this study is to analyze the effect of using Android-based digital learning materials on students’ learning motivation in the context of distance education. A quantitative approach was employed using a survey method as the research design. The research sample consisted of 97 Universitas Terbuka students from UT Ambon, UT Gorontalo, and UT Makassar, selected through simple random sampling. Data were collected using structured questionnaires, while data analysis was conducted through simple linear regression with the assistance of SPSS software. The results of the analysis indicate that the utilization of Android-based digital learning materials has a positive and significant effect on students’ learning motivation, as evidenced by a regression coefficient value of 0.442 and a significance value of 0.000, which is below the 0.05 significance threshold. These findings confirm that improvements in the intensity and quality of using Android-based digital learning materials are directly associated with increased student learning motivation. The novelty of this study lies in strengthening empirical evidence on the effectiveness of Android-based digital learning materials in a cross-regional distance education context, while also providing practical contributions to the development of digital learning strategies aimed at enhancing the learning motivation of Universitas Terbuka students.

Higher education is a key pillar in constructing new knowledge economies for the 21st century, and the digitalization of higher education is a central focus area for national authorities. Visionary discourses from authorities state that the decision-making authority for digital strategies should be centralized to the domain of management. Digitalization is, however, driven by key features of modern technology and may also lead to the transformation of traditional educational methods as well as educational practices. Since the university contains several disciplines, different strategies can be used when products or processes within the disciplines are digitalized. It is important to consider in the ways that different disciplines can proceed to digitalize their educational practices. Based on these interests, our research question is as follows: how do digital strategies in higher education emerge, and how do they align with the educational context? Through a qualitative case study with interviews, participation in workshops, and document analyses, we investigated two digitalization efforts in the fields of medicine and law. We found that the two classical disciplines’ strategic approaches differed substantially. Based on the findings, our main contribution is a digitalization model with two archetypes, namely digital transformation strategy and digital innovation strategy. The model highlight the main object of the respective strategies, but also the institutional reaction to digitalization efforts. An implication from our study is the demonstration of how specific faculties adapt digital strategies to educational practices. This may sometimes lead to the transformation of educational practices, while other times more incremental moderate changes may be implemented. From a practical point of view, policymakers, politicians, educational management, and professionals need knowledge and expertise about the implications of digital strategies for educational practices. Our contribution, we propose, strengthens the understanding of strategies within digital infrastructures in higher education.

Predictions about the post‐pandemic future of digital learning vary among higher education scholars. Some foresee dramatic, revolutionary change while others speculate that growth in educational technology will be buffeted both by modest expansion and unevenness. To this debate we contribute evidence from four groups across six countries on four continents: college and university educators ( n = 281), students ( n = 4243), senior administrators ( n = 15), and instructional design specialists ( n = 43). Our focus is on the future of digital learning after the pandemic‐induced pivot to emergency remote instruction. Using data from interviews and self‐administered questionnaires, our findings reveal a high degree of congruency between respondent groups, with most envisioning more blended/hybrid instruction post‐pandemic and some modest increases in fully online courses. Student opinion is more sceptical about future change than within the other groups. Among respondents in all groups there is little expectation for a full‐blown, revolutionary change in online or digital learning. Practitioner notes What is already known about this topic Digital learning has been growing in higher education, although a digital disconnect continues whereby the availability of educational technology exceeds its application to learning. Expectations regarding technology‐mediated learning post‐COVID‐19 are mixed, hampering planning for the future. Hesitancy about teaching or taking courses with some or full online components persists. What this paper adds A strong majority of respondents in higher education foresee the most growth in blended/hybrid forms of digital learning post‐COVID‐19. A solid percentage, between about two‐thirds and three‐quarters of faculty and students, envision learners and instructors taking or teaching more fully online courses post‐pandemic. A strong congruency exists between faculty, students, senior administrators, and instructional design professionals in their ranking of scenarios for the future of digital learning. Implications for practice and/or policy Educational technology in higher learning will not return to a pre‐COVID‐19 normality—if a pre‐COVID‐19 ‘normal’ could even be defined. As post‐pandemic institutional planning unfolds, it is important to reflect experiences and incorporate insights of instructors, students, and instructional designers. Successfully building on these insights, where more blended/hybrid learning is foreseen, requires a thoughtful integration of face‐to‐face learning and educational technology.

Learning environments are ubiquitous. Schools, universities, workplaces, professional organizations, community groups, families, religious groups, museums, after‐school programs, and peer groups are environments that provide opportunities for learning and socialization. As digital technologies saturate our lives and participation in online environments soars, both the number and the variety of digital learning environments are growing exponentially. Video games, social networking sites, open courses, and a variety of social and networked technologies provide individuals with opportunities to learn content and competencies, and adopt new behavior patterns. Growing numbers of learners are taking courses online (Allen and Seaman 2013) and governments, elected officials, and interest groups are encouraging the development of digital learning opportunities (e.g., European Commission 2013). Digital learning environments are central to endeavors to design, develop, and deliver digital learning opportunities. While the LMS (e.g., Blackboard, Desire2Learn, Moodle, Instructure Canvas) is often used in such initiatives, a number of other digital learning environments have been adopted (e.g., blogging platforms, social media, and other standalone digital environments). We note that the terms LMS and VLE refer to the same technology. The term LMS is used in this chapter. The notion of the learning environment is associated with the constructivist movement (Wilson 1995, 27), as emphasis has moved from the individual (e.g., student, instructor), to the context, to the place and space surrounding learning and instruction. Wilson argues: “learning environments seem intrinsically fuzzy and ill‐defined. That is, an environment that is good for learning cannot be fully prepackaged and defined. If students are involved in choosing learning activities and controlling pace and direction, a level of uncertainty and uncontrolledness comes into play.” The increasing use of digital technologies in education gave rise to the notion of the digital learning environment. Yet, digital learning environments are also ill‐defined. Digital Learning Environments

CONSTRUCTIVISM VS. BEHAVIORISM OF PEDAGOGICAL THEORIES TO THE DIGITAL CLASSROOM: PRACTICAL STRATEGIES FOR HIGHER EDUCATORS In the rapidly evolving background of higher education, the digital classroom has emerged as a trans-formative atmosphere where traditional pedagogical theories are being re-imagined to meet the needs of contemporary learners. This paper explores the application of two prominent pedagogical theories—Behaviorism and Constructivism in digital learning environments, highlighting their distinct approaches and practical implications for higher education. The paper discusses that a blended method, integrating both Behaviorist and Constructivist tactics, can create a more inclusive and dynamic digital learning environment. By leveraging the strengths of each theory, higher educators can design courses that cater to diverse learning needs, promote student engagement, and enhance learning results. Practical recommendations include the usage of Learning Management Systems (LMS) for structured content delivery, personalized learning through adaptive tools, and fostering social interaction through collaborative platforms. This paper concludes that while Behaviorism and Constructivism offer distinct theoretical foundations, their combined application in the digital classroom can lead to a more effective and student-centered learning experience. Behaviorism emphasizes observable behaviors, reinforcement, and structured learning experiences while Constructivism, on the other hand, focuses on active learning, cognitive processes, and the co-construction of knowledge. By thoughtfully integrating these pedagogical approaches, higher educators can better prepare students for the challenges of the digital age and foster a culture of lifelong learning.

Aim. This study aims to examine the effect of lecturers’ teaching orientations, as perceived by students, on students’ digital learning patterns, differentiating between research-oriented and pedagogy-oriented teaching approaches. Methods. A survey method was employed to collect data from undergraduate students regarding their perceptions of their lecturers’ orientations and their own digital learning patterns. Descriptive statistical analysis, Pearson correlation, and mediation models were utilized to analyse the relationships between variables. Results. The findings indicate that when students perceived the lecturer as research-oriented, no significant indirect association mediated by the digital learning experience was found between the lecturer’s profile and both active and passive digital learning patterns. However, the association between the research-oriented lecturer and active digital learning was partially mediated by the student’s reading habits, while the association with passive digital learning was fully mediated by reading habits. For pedagogy-oriented lecturers, both active and passive digital learning patterns were partially mediated by the student’s learning experience, with no significant mediation by reading habits. Conclusion. The study suggests that research-oriented lecturers influence active digital learning through students’ reading habits, while pedagogy-oriented lecturers influence both active and passive digital learning through students’ digital learning experiences. Understanding these dynamics can help educational institutions support lecturers in their professional development and improve student learning outcomes in digital environments.

This study focuses on identifying the challenges and coping strategies for enhancing social integration within digital learning environments in Malaysian higher education. It aims to shed light on the specific obstacles that prevent students from achieving effective social integration online and the measures taken by educators and administrators to address these challenges. To achieve this, the research employed a qualitative methodology involving semi-structured interviews with five administrators from public and private universities in Malaysia, coupled with an examination of relevant university policy documents. Thematic analysis of the data indicated that institutions, lecturers, and students each face distinct challenges regarding social integration in digital learning environments. Strategies identified to mitigate these challenges include policies and program changes in classroom, the use of technology, lecturers’ utilization of technology during classes, and university support. The findings from this study provide valuable insights for researchers, educators, and administrators, aiming to improve understanding, assessment, and promotion of social integration in online learning contexts, and inform policy-making and strategic planning to enhance digital learning experiences. Received: 12 July 2024 / Accepted: xx December 2024 / Published: 05 January 2025