Active case finding for tuberculosis among Ukrainian soldiers by German armed forces

Active case finding (ACF) for tuberculosis (TB) was implemented in 60 selected high TB burden wards of Kolkata, India. Community volunteers called TOUCH (Targeted Outreach for Upliftment of Community Health) agents (TAs) identified and referred presumptive TB patients (PTBPs) to health facilities for TB diagnosis and treatment. We aimed to describe the “care cascade” of PTBPs that were identified during July to December 2018 and to explore the reasons for attrition as perceived by TAs and PTBPs. An explanatory mixed-methods study with a quantitative phase of cohort study using routinely collected data followed by descriptive qualitative study with in-depth interviews was conducted. Of the 3,86242 individuals that were enumerated, 1132 (0.3%) PTBPs were identified. Only 713 (63.0%) PTBPs visited a referred facility for TB diagnosis. TB was diagnosed in 177 (24.8%). The number needed to screen for one TB patient was 2183 individuals. The potential reasons for low yield were stigma and apprehension about TB, distrust about TA, wage losses for attending health facilities, and substance abuse among PTBPs. The yield of ACF was suboptimal with low PTBP identification rate and a high attrition rate. Interviewing each individual for symptoms of TB and supporting PTBPs for diagnosis through sputum collection and transport can be adopted to improve the yield.

Background Active case finding (ACF) for tuberculosis (TB) is a promising tool to enhance early case detection among marginalized populations. As opposed to passive case finding, it involves systematically searching for TB in individuals who would not spontaneously present for care. The National TB Program (NTP) of India has initiated ACF for TB through the existing general health system since the end of 2017. However, prior to scale-up, there is need for exploring the implementation challenges and solutions to improve the efficiency of this program. Objectives (1) To explore the enablers and challenges in the implementation of ACF for TB by NTP in the Bengaluru rural district of Karnataka, South India, and (2) to explore the perceived solutions to improve the efficiency of ACF activity. Methods A qualitative descriptive study was conducted in the Bengaluru rural district during July 2018. In-depth interviews using purposively selected health care providers involved in active case finding (n = 9) and presumptive TB patients (n = 9) and presumptive TB patients (Results The challenges in conduct of ACF were as follows: inadequate training of health care workers, shortage of staff, indifferent attitude of community due to stigma, lack of awareness about TB, illiteracy, inability to convince patients for sputum test, and delay in getting CBNAAT results. The field staff recommended the installation of mobile CBNAAT machine, involvement of general health staff in activity, training of health workers on counseling of patients, and issue of identity cards for community health workers/volunteers so that people recognize them. Conclusion The health system challenges in conduct of ACF need to be addressed by training the health staff involved in activity and also improving the access to TB diagnostics.

BackgroundThere is a dearth of comparative effectiveness research examining the implementation of different strategies for active tuberculosis (TB) case finding, particularly in rural settings, which represent 60% of the population of sub-Saharan Africa.Methods and findingsWe conducted a pragmatic, cluster-randomized comparative effectiveness trial of two TB case finding strategies (facility-based screening and contact tracing) in 56 public primary care clinics in two largely rural districts of Limpopo Province, South Africa. In the facility-based screening arm, sputum Xpert MTB/RIF was performed on all patients presenting (for any reason) with TB symptoms to 28 study clinics, and no contact tracing was performed. In the contact-tracing arm, contacts of patients with active TB were identified (via household tracing in 14 clinics and using small monetary incentives in the other 14 clinics), screened for TB symptoms, and offered Xpert MTB/RIF testing. The primary outcome was the number of newly identified patients with TB started on treatment. The analysis used multivariable Poisson regression adjusted for historical clinic-level TB case volumes and district. The trial was registered with ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT02808507). From July 18, 2017, to January 17, 2019, a total of 3,755 individuals started TB treatment across 56 study clinics in the 18-month period. Clinic characteristics and clinic-level averages of patient characteristics were similar across the two arms: 40/56 (71%) clinics were in a rural location, 2,136/3,655 (58%) patients were male, and 2,243 (61%) were HIV positive. The treatment initiation ratio comparing the yield of TB patients started on treatment in the facility-based arm compared to that from the contact-tracing arm was 1.04 (95% confidence interval [CI] 0.83–1.30, p = 0. 73). In the contact-tracing arm, 1,677 contacts of 788 new TB index patients were screened, yielding 12 new patients with TB. Prespecified subgroup analyses resulted in similar results, with estimated treatment initiation ratios of 0.96 (95% CI 0.64–1.27; p = 0.78) and 1.23 (95% CI 0.87–1.59; p = 0.29) among historically smaller and historically larger clinics, respectively. This ratio was 1.02 (95% CI 0.66–1.37; p = 0.93) and 1.08 (95% CI 0.74–1.42; p = 0.68) in the Vhembe and Waterberg districts, respectively. The estimated treatment initiation ratio was unchanged in sensitivity analyses excluding 24 records whose TB registration numbers could not be verified (1.03, 95% CI 0.82–1.29; p = 0.78) and excluding transfers-in (1.02, 95% CI 0.80–1.29; p = 0.71). Study limitations include the possibility of imbalance on cluster size owing to changes in catchment population over time and the inability to distinguish the independent effects of the two contact investigation strategies.ConclusionsContact tracing based on symptom screening and Xpert MTB/RIF testing did not increase the rate of treatment initiation for TB relative to the less resource-intensive approach of facility-based screening in this rural sub-Saharan setting.Trial registrationClinicalTrials.gov NCT02808507.

Current approaches are unlikely to achieve the aggressive global tuberculosis (TB) control targets set for 2035 and beyond. Active case finding (ACF) may be an important tool for augmenting existing strategies, but the cost-effectiveness of ACF remains uncertain. Program evaluators can often measure the cost of ACF per TB case detected, but how this accessible measure translates into traditional metrics of cost-effectiveness, such as the cost per disability-adjusted life year (DALY), remains unclear. We constructed dynamic models of TB in India, China, and South Africa to explore the medium-term impact and cost-effectiveness of generic ACF activities, conceptualized separately as discrete (2-year) campaigns and as continuous activities integrated into ongoing TB control programs. Our primary outcome was the cost per DALY, measured in relationship to the cost per TB case actively detected and started on treatment. Discrete campaigns costing up to $1,200 (95% uncertainty range [UR] 850-2,043) per case actively detected and started on treatment in India, $3,800 (95% UR 2,706-6,392) in China, and $9,400 (95% UR 6,957-13,221) in South Africa were all highly cost-effective (cost per DALY averted less than per capita gross domestic product). Prolonged integration was even more effective and cost-effective. Short-term assessments of ACF dramatically underestimated potential longer term gains; for example, an assessment of an ACF program at 2 years might find a non-significant 11% reduction in prevalence, but a 10-year evaluation of that same intervention would show a 33% reduction. ACF can be a powerful and highly cost-effective tool in the fight against TB. Given that short-term assessments may dramatically underestimate medium-term effectiveness, current willingness to pay may be too low. ACF should receive strong consideration as a basic tool for TB control in most high-burden settings, even when it may cost over $1,000 to detect and initiate treatment for each extra case of active TB.

BackgroundGlobally, case detection of tuberculosis (TB) has stabilized in recent years. Active case finding (ACF) has regained an increased attention as a complementary strategy to fill the case detection gap. In the Philippines, the DetecTB project implemented an innovative ACF strategy that offered a one-stop diagnostic service with a mobile unit equipped with enhanced diagnostic tools including chest X-ray (CXR) and Xpert®MTB/RIF (Xpert). The project targeted the rural poor, the urban poor, prison inmates, indigenous population and high school students.MethodsThis is a retrospective review of TB screening data from 25,103 individuals. A descriptive analysis was carried out to compare screening and treatment outcomes across target populations. Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed to identify predictors of TB for each population. The composition of bacteriologically-confirmed cases by smear and symptom status was further investigated.ResultsThe highest yield with lowest number needed to screen (NNS) was found in prison (6.2%, NNS: 16), followed by indigenous population (2.9%, NNS: 34), the rural poor (2.2%, NNS: 45), the urban poor (2.1%, NNS: 48), and high school (0.2%, NNS: 495). The treatment success rate for all populations was high with 89.5% in rifampicin-susceptible patients and 83.3% in rifampicin-resistant patients. A relatively higher loss to follow-up rate was observed in indigenous population (7.5%) and the rural poor (6.4%). Only cough more than two weeks showed a significant association with TB diagnosis in all target populations (Adjusted Odds Ratio ranging from 1.71 to 6.73) while other symptoms and demographic factors varied in their strength of association. The urban poor had the highest proportion of smear-positive patients with cough more than two weeks (72.0%). The proportion of smear-negative (Xpert-positive) patients without cough more than two weeks was the highest in indigenous population (39.3%), followed by prison inmates (27.7%), and the rural poor (22.8%).ConclusionsThe innovative ACF strategy using mobile unit yielded a substantial number of TB patients and achieved successful treatment outcomes. TB screening in prison, indigenous population, and urban and rural poor communities was found to be effective. The combined use of CXR and Xpert largely contributed to increased case detection.

Active case finding for Tuberculosis among migrant brick kiln workers in South India

Background Case detection for Tuberculosis remains low in high-burden communities. Community Health Workers (CHWs) are the first point of contact for many rural Nigerians and have been useful in active case finding. This study assessed the effectiveness of cash incentives and training on tuberculosis case detection by CHWs in six Local Government Areas in Nigeria. Materials and Methods A cluster randomized control trial with three arms was conducted. Arm A received cash incentives and training, Arm B received only training, and the control arm (C) received neither. CHWs already working in the communities participated. TB case notification and number of community outreaches held were used to assess intervention effects. Data were analyzed using STATA (v.13) and GraphPad Prism (v.8). Effect sizes were calculated using odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals. Associations were tested using Chi-square (χ²) tests, with significance set at P=0.05. Results Arm A had a 14.4% increase in case notification, Arm B showed a 7.4% increase, and the control arm showed a 39.7% increase from the previous year. Arms A and B had lower odds of TB case notification post-intervention, compared to the control (OR = 0.819 and 0.769, respectively), with no significant difference between them. Arm A also saw a 144.8% increase in community outreaches, compared to 46.7% in Arm B and 22.7% in Control Arm C. Arms A and B had higher odds of carrying out community outreaches post-intervention compared to the control (OR = 1.995 and 1.195, respectively), but no significant differences were found between the groups regarding community outreach. Conclusion While the interventions resulted in an increased number of community outreaches compared to the control, case notification improved more in the control arm than in the intervention arms. Nevertheless, the findings highlight the potential of combining cash incentives with training to improve TB control efforts at the community level. Further exploration of the implementation process may shed light on the observed outcomes and guide future intervention strategies.

Prisons offer a fertile setting for the transmission of tuberculosis due to the presence of many classic risk factors for both infection and disease: overcrowding, poor ventilation, and little sunlight. Prisoners are often malnourished and have poor hygiene and are more likely to have a background of alcohol and drug abuse. To determine the prevalence of prisoners with respiratory symptoms and pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) through active case finding in a prisoner population of the county jail of Carapicuíba, and to study possible related variables. This was a cross-sectional study, and respiratory symptomatic individuals (RSI) were detected through active case finding. Socio-demographic data were collected from inmates' judicial history using a specific questionnaire. The RSI provided sputum specimens for detection of acid fast bacilli and culture for mycobacterium identification. Among the 397 prisoners studied, 154 reported respiratory symptoms for more than three weeks, and were considered RSI; the variables associated with RSI were: having already been tried and incarcerated for more than six months and seven were diagnosed as PTB (1,763 cases/ 100,000 inhabitants). The prevalence of RSI and PTB cases were respectively 39 and 35 times greater than the general population.

Impact of a Scalable Intervention Package, Including a Point-of-Care Molecular Diagnostic Tool, on Community-Based Active Case Finding for Tuberculosis: A Pragmatic Randomized Controlled Trial

Community-based active case finding for tuberculosis in rural western China: A cross-sectional study

To assess feasibility and yield of diagnostic procedures after active case finding for tuberculosis with radiologic screening at the three main entry points for asylum seekers to Switzerland. Prospective multicenter study on the value of symptoms, spontaneous and induced sputum, and bronchoscopy for the confirmation of tuberculosis in radiologically selected cases. Among 101 asylum seekers examined, spontaneous sputum was collected "on the spot" in 83 and yielded 7 (54%) of 13 smear-positive and 13 (39%) of 33 culture-positive cases. Morning sputum, collected in 84, yielded 8 (62%) and 16 (49%), and the two spontaneous sputa combined 9 (69%) and 20 (61%), respectively. Two additional induced sputa, collected in 91 persons, yielded no additional smear-positive, but yielded seven culture-positive cases (yield, 82%). Bronchoscopy, performed in 87 of 92 sputum smear-negative cases, yielded four additional smear-positive and six culture-positive cases. Culture confirmation was independently and significantly predicted by obtaining a specimen using bronchoscopy (adjusted odds ratio, 11.0; 95% confidence interval, 1.9-62) and a prior decision to treat (adjusted odds ratio, 3.0; confidence interval, 1.1-8.1). Radiographic anomalies compatible with tuberculosis found during screening are a poor guide to initiation of treatment. Respiratory and systemic symptoms correlated weakly with culture confirmation of tuberculosis. All radiologically selected cases must be examined with on-the-spot and early-morning sputum, regardless of symptoms. If both specimens are smear negative, the yield is increased by bronchoscopy and, to a lesser extent, by two samples of induced sputum. The examination of any single specimen has a low yield of 36 to 63% and is insufficient to exclude active tuberculosis.

Background. One of the main strategies for the early detection of pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) is through the screening of individuals with symptoms compatible with PTB. Although this is programmatic strategy for active case finding, its yield is not well known. Objective. To determine the yield of pulmonary tuberculosis active case finding through the screening of respiratory symptomatic (RS) patients at a general hospital. Methods. RS patients were defined as subjects complaining of cough and/or sputum for a period of 2 or more weeks. Outpatients and their companions were approached while they waited in the outpatient care areas of the hospital to detect RS. Two samples from different days or 2 samples taken 2 hours apart on the same day were collected. Results. 122 RS patients were identified. Fifty-seven patients (46.7%) had at least one sputum sample analyzed. Three patients presented a positive smear and 2 were culture positive; neither had upper airway symptoms. None of the patients with productive cough and upper airway symptoms had a positive smear (P = 0.07). Only 19 (33.3%) returned to the laboratory to retrieve their results. Conclusion. Current strategy to screen RS patients based only on clinical data has a low compliance. Specific strategies to increase compliance (removal of barriers, incentives, etc.) should be implemented.

The Lesotho Ministry of Health issued guidelines on active case finding (ACF) for tuberculosis (TB) and isoniazid preventive therapy (IPT) in April 2011. ACF has been recommended in maternal and child health (MCH) settings globally, however, the feasibility of implementing IPT within MCH in countries with high concurrent HIV and TB epidemics is unknown. The study evaluated the implementation of ACF and IPT guidelines in MCH settings in 2 health facilities in Lesotho. This descriptive prospective study analyzed data collected during routine services. Categorical data and continuous variables were summarized using descriptive statistics. The χ test or Wilcoxon rank-sum test was used to ascertain significant associations between categorical and continuous variables, respectively. Data from 160 HIV-positive and 640 HIV-negative women were reviewed. Within this study population, 99.8% of women were screened for TB, and 11.4% HIV-positive women compared with 2.3% HIV-negative women were reported to have symptoms of TB (P < 0.001). IPT was initiated in 124/158 (78.5%) HIV-positive pregnant women, 64.5% women completed a 6-month IPT regimen, 2 (1.6%) died of causes unrelated to IPT/TB, and 31.5% were lost to follow-up. Predictors of IPT initiation among HIV-positive women included gestational age at the first antenatal visit (unadjusted odds ratio, -0.93; 95% confidence interval: -0.88 to 0.98), and receipt of antiretroviral therapy for treatment rather than for prevention of mother-to-child transmission prophylaxis only (odds ratio, 4.59; 95% confidence interval: 1.32 to 15.93). Implementation of ACF and IPT is feasible within the MCH setting. Uptake of IPT during pregnancy among HIV-positive women was high, but with a high rate of loss to follow-up.

IntroductionNamibia is a high tuberculosis (TB)-burden country with an estimated incidence of 460/100 000 (around 12 000 cases) per year. Approximately 4.5% of new cases and 7.9% of previously treated...

Active case finding, diagnosis, and genotyping for tuberculosis in the central Andean zone of Ecuador: a cross-sectional study