Adaptive Ignition and Knock Control

<div class="htmlview paragraph">The removal of nitrogen oxides emitted by diesel and lean burn engines is one of the most important targets in catalytic exhaust aftertreatment research. Besides the selective catalytic reduction (SCR) reaction with ammonia the most promising approach is the NO<sub>x</sub> Storage and Reduction Catalyst (NSR) which utilizes the nitrogen oxides storage on barium sites to form nitrates during the lean phase and their reduction to nitrogen in a rich atmosphere.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">In this paper, we present a modeling approach for the description of the transient behavior of a NSR. The model applies a two-dimensional description of the flow field in the single channels coupled with detailed models for the chemical processes.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The mechanism used for modeling the oxidation and reduction of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides, respectively, is based on an elementary step reaction mechanism for platinum catalysts and a shrinking core model for the storage and reduction processes on the barium particles.</div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">SI engines are exposed to the risk of knocking combustion if the resistance of the fuel against self ignition is too low. Knocking combustion cycles can be detected by means of the vibration signal energy calculated in a predetermined time window, Based on a continuous signal sampling during quasi-steady engine operation an appropriate data processing technique has been developed to identify the engine operation conditions which are suspected to disturb the knock detection.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">To increase knock detection reliability a new strategy has been developed; characteristic features are: wideband filtering of the structure vibration, window energy calculation of the signal, determination of the standard deviation of the energy values.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">A knock control simulation code has been written for the standard deviation strategy. Knock control system calibration can be optimized by aid of this program very efficiently.</div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">In this study, LQR control design is presented for the control of a vehicle active suspension system. Seven degrees of freedom, full vehicle model is used. LQR control system is prepared as well as adaptive LQR control system (gain scheduling strategy) to study the effect of each control system using the active suspension on ride performance. The acceleration and dynamic tyre load are evaluated. For the time domain analysis, different road conditions are considered in order to reveal the performance of the two controllers. The simulation results showed that adaptive LQR control system gives a better ride performance compared with LQR control system. Also, the comparison between these control strategies are discussed.</div></div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">As we developed Ion Current Combustion Control system (ICCS), we began to discover some issues of the ion current system. Depending upon combustion scenarios, the noise contributed to weak output characteristics and output variations making the combustion unstable.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">This paper intends to present methods developed to overcome these issues:</div> <section id="s_1" class="section"> <h2 class="title">SYSTEM HARDWARE</h2> <div class="htmlview paragraph">In the previous report<sup>(<span class="xref">1</span>)</sup>, we described the issues on the detection sensitivities and noise proof characteristics. In this study, we further reviewed the system component designs to address those challenges.</div> </section> <section id="s_2" class="section"> <h2 class="title">SYSTEM SOFTWARE</h2> <div class="htmlview paragraph">We have reported<sup>(<span class="xref">1</span>)</sup> a learning method for the stable knock control for varying output characteristics. However, there was a limitation in the application. Hence, we further analyzed the ion current characteristics, then developed a new algorithm to resolve this issue. This new system with the knock control and the misfire detection was introduced in 2000 MY.</div> </section>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Adaptive cruise control is one of the key technologies in advanced driver assistance systems. However, improving the performance of autonomous driving systems requires addressing various challenges, such as maintaining the dynamic stability of the vehicle during the cruise process, accurately controlling the distance between the ego vehicle and the preceding vehicle, resisting the effects of nonlinear changes in longitudinal speed on system performance. To overcome these challenges, an adaptive cruise control strategy based on the Takagi-Sugeno fuzzy model with a focus on ensuring vehicle lateral stability is proposed. Firstly, a collaborative control model of adaptive cruise and lateral stability is established with desired acceleration and additional yaw moment as control inputs. Then, considering the effect of the nonlinear change of the longitudinal speed on the performance of the vehicle system. And the input penalty factor of the adaptive cruise control system is designed as a variable parameter for the collaborative control model. On this basis, the longitudinal speed, reciprocal of speed and penalty factor are used as advance variables to design fuzzy rules of the system. And the nonlinear Takagi-Sugeno fuzzy model is established by fuzzifying the local linear model. Then, the vehicle following cruise controller considering the lateral stability is designed by parallel distribution compensation method. Finally, the TruckSim/Simulink co-simulation model was built for testing. The test results show that the proposed controller can improve the lateral stability of the vehicle during the following process, reduce the risk of instability of the vehicle, and improve the overall safety of the automatic driving system.</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">In order to improve drivers’ acceptance to advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) with better adaptation, drivers’ driving behavior should play key role in the design of control strategy. Adaptive cruise control systems (ACC) have many factors that can be influenced by different driving behavior. It is important to recognize drivers’ driving behavior and take human-like parameters to the adaptive cruise control systems to assist different drivers effectively via their driving characteristics.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The paper proposed a method to recognize drivers’ behavior and intention based on Gaussian Mixture Model. By means of a fuzzy PID control method, a personalized ACC control strategy was designed for different kinds of drivers to improve the adaptabilities of the systems.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Several typical testing scenarios of longitudinal case were created with a host vehicle and a traffic vehicle. Some high precision sensors were mounted in both test vehicles, such as RT 3002<sup>®</sup>, RT range<sup>®</sup>, radar and pedal pressure sensor. The traffic vehicle was set in different driving modes, include cruise mode, decelerating slowly, accelerating slowly, hard braking, hard acceleration, cutting out the lane, cutting into the line and sinusoidal movement. The host vehicle was operated behind the traffic vehicle by 84 drivers selected randomly. The drivers’ driving styles were evaluated via both subjective and objective indicators. The subjective indicators were based on the questionnaires by interviewing the drivers and the passengers. The objective indicators were based on the parameters extracted from the specific test conditions. The vehicle-following data were collected and analyzed via MATLAB<sup>®</sup> which was further trained by Gaussian Mixture Model. With regarding to the multi-mode switching strategy, the parameters of different driver’s characteristics were considered in the fuzzy PID control method to improve the adaptivity and accuracy in the switching process. Meanwhile, different fuzzy rules and fuzzy membership functions were applied for every type of drivers to calculate the best parameters for the personalized ACC control strategy. The control modes include cruise, steady following, approaching and hard braking. The different driving characteristics were also added into every control strategy via road experimental data and analyzed results from Gaussian Mixture Model. Compared with the existing ACC, the system proposed in this paper has great advantages on not only the adaptivity and human acceptance, but also the performance of the system itself which was verified on the simulation platform PanoSim<sup>®</sup>.</div></div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">The impact of the new unleaded fuel qualities with significantly altered Octane numbers and new European emission standards on design philosophy of gasoline engines is discussed.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The design features of a new engine family show how the introduction of unleaded fuels has influenced engine concepts for the European market. The technologies which have become necessary and possible (catalytic emission control) for these concepts are mentioned. The difference between present European design concepts and future demands is shown.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">A detailed presentation including development results demonstrates that the VW concept with knock control and fuel injection has a wide range of fuel tolerance. The advantages and main areas of application of concepts which include knock control are explained.</div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">Radar based collision warning systems (CWS) for heavy trucks have been in production and on the road in the United States for approximately two years. A short description of these systems is presented with actual driver performance data and accident reduction data as experienced by various U.S. national fleets using these systems. The next application of radar sensors is for Intelligent Cruise Control (ICC) or also known as Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC). This paper describes the operation of adaptive cruise control and presents the associated benefits to the driver</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The radar technology has been enhanced and the application has been extended to include radar controlled adaptive cruise control for heavy trucks This has been made possible by 1) technology improvements in radar systems, plus 2) the addition of the standard SAE J1939 data bus for engine controllers on most U.S diesel engines. The SAE J1939 data bus allows electronic control of engine speed by the radar system plus in many cases, control of engine retarder braking to assist in vehicle slowing while in adaptive cruise control operation.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">This paper described the radar operation, radar enhancements and the benefits of adaptive cruise control as experienced by drivers. The most significant radar enhancement, called monopulse radar is presented Comparisons are made between standard cruise control operation on heavy trucks and adaptive cruise control</div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">A practical ZrO2 NOx sensor using dual oxygen pumping cells has been introduced for the control of NOx emitted from a lean-burn gasoline engine and diesel engine.<sup>(<span class="xref">1</span>),(<span class="xref">2</span>)</sup>. However, the measuring accuracy was not high enough to be useful for controlling or monitoring a low level of NOx concentration such as several tens ppm behind a three way catalyst or lean NOx catalyst which is NOx adsorption or De-NOx catalyst.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">This paper describes improvement of the interference effect of oxygen in the exhaust gas from the lean-burn gasoline engine and diesel engine. The cause of oxygen dependency is analyzed/revealed and a method of improvement is introduced.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The improved NOx sensor has an approximately · · 2% measuring error in the wide range of oxygen concentration on a model gas system, compared to the · ·10% of the previous one. The improved NOx sensor provides a linear signal with a measuring error within · · 10%, in a diesel engine operating under practical conditions in which oxygen concentration, gas temperature, and back pressure of exhaust gas vary from 2 to 14.5 %, 175 to 730 · ·and 2 to 100 mmHg respectively. It is also confirmed that the improved NOx sensor can monitor less than 100 ppm of NOx emitted from a TOYOTA D-4 engine equipped with a NOx adsorption catalyst. The improved NOx sensor would be capable of measuring less than 100 ppm of NOx behind catalyst.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Therefore, the improved NOx sensor would be useful for OBD of lean NOx catalyst and for control of NOx adsorption catalyst.</div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">Recent improvements in the mechanical equipment and the processes employed in the various car-assembling plants of a large motor-car-building company are described. As a result of the changes these departments have been transformed from the most unsightly parts of the factory into the cleanest, most comfortable and least dangerous. The processes to which special attention is devoted are those for the enameling of fenders and sheet-metal parts and such small parts as various stampings, forgings and malleables and cover the application of two coats of an asphaltic-base enamel and a subsequent baking at about 450 deg. fahr.; in body enameling they cover the application of three coats of similar material and baking at from 290 to 350 deg. fahr.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The course of the various parts is followed from the time of their receipt to that of their delivery to the assembling department to which they belong. When first received from the stamping department or from outside sources they are carefully inspected. They are protected from rust at the source with an outside coating that may be easily removed later by a washing process that precedes enameling. Successive improvements in the fender-enameling ovens consisted of replacing the original box-type ovens, which were open at one end and in which the dipping was done by hand, with those of the semi-continuous type, open at both ends and arranged in line in such a manner that certain parts could be dipped and hung on the conveyor bars while other parts previously dipped and run into the ovens were baking; these ovens in turn were superseded by those of the continuous type in which the parts are hung on the conveyors at one end, are automatically dipped, allowed to drip and baked and not handled again until they finally emerge at the discharge end completely finished with a double coating of enamel. The body-enameling ovens likewise were changed from the original square-box type with doors in the front to the tunnel-type equipped with power conveyors. The last three batteries built by the company were further improved by being suspended overhead with the ends inclined to the floor, thereby forming a seal at each end and completely trapping the oven.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The ideal oven-wall should have low thermal-conductivity, low thermal-capacity and the minimum amount of through metal, should contain the minimum amount of metallic materials, form a rugged construction, be designed, if possible, to allow the ready removal of the ovens without waste of material, provide a smooth inner surface to facilitate cleaning, be completely dust-tight and non-dusting and have a reasonably low first cost of construction. The ideal conveyor should carry the body through all three coats without the necessity for removing it from the conveyor after each bake and mounting it again to flow-on the succeeding coat; but with large production this would require an unreasonably long building.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">A system of handling enamel is described that ensures absolute cleanliness and safety, prevents waste and provides centralized and economical operation.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Indirect gas heaters were superseded by electric heaters so that electric heating became standard throughout, with the exception of one bank of body ovens in which electric heaters were used in the central zone to supplement high-pressure steam-coils. Electric heating was satisfactory so far as ease of operation and accuracy of control was concerned, but was found to be costly and the cause of numerous fires in the ovens. As a result, the electric heaters have been discarded in favor of indirect oil-fired hot-air heaters, each oven having its own individual heater of the multiple-unit type. Compared with electric heaters, the first cost of the equipment is favorable, the cost of maintenance is negligible, the labor operation cost about the same and the fuel cost per unit much less.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">In addition to arrangements for automatically emptying the tanks in case of fire, the dip-tanks and drain-boards are protected with automatic Foamite extinguisher heads and the fender ovens are equipped with open-end high-pressure steam lines for smothering the fire with steam. Body-oven flow-rooms are protected by water-sprinkler heads.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Special attention is devoted to cleanliness, not only of the materials but of the equipment, tanks, conveyors, floors and the like. A ventilation system injects washed air into the rooms, which creates a static pressure and a flow of air currents outward through the doors and the windows. This prevents dust-laden air from entering.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Distribution of the finished enameled parts to the various assembling departments is done by overhead conveyors that reduce the labor cost of handling, minimize the rejections on account of injury, occupy less floor space and at the same time provide means of carrying a small stock of finished parts ahead of the assembling operations.</div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">A Kenworth T800 heavy duty dump truck operating on compressed natural gas has been in service with the city of Surrey, British Columbia. The truck uses a Cummins L-10-300G engine, a dedicated spark ignition engine. Fuel is stored in Dynetek high capacity cylinders, and a data logging system is fitted to monitor performance and fuel consumption of the truck.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The truck is used in municipal service moving gravel and asphalt to work sites. A typical day's use is about 200 km.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The truck has been modified significantly throughout the project. A stoichiometric natural gas engine has been replaced with a lean burn engine and the fuel capacity has been increased. One of the key findings in the demonstration has been that fueling stations must have their storage sized to the fuel capacity of the largest vehicle in order to allow reasonable refueling times.</div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">With the development and maturity of new generation digital technologies such as artificial intelligence, Internet of Things, and 5G mobile communication, their integration with physical products is becoming increasingly seamless. Automobiles serve as a prime example in this regard. In recent years, automated vehicle (AV) technologies have emerged as a prominent focal point, witnessing an escalating acceptance in the market and a growing number of self-driving vehicles on the roads, existing roads are primarily designed for traditional human-driven vehicles (HVs). Due to the differences in perception between automated systems and human drivers, it is essential to assess AVs' feasibility to current road infrastructure. This paper analyzes the safety and comfort of automated vehicles equipped with adaptive cruise control systems (ACC-AVs) on longitudinal road profiles from the perspective of vehicle dynamics. Firstly, a co-simulation platform integrating PreScan, CarSim, and Simulink software is established, providing a comprehensive environment for simulating AV behavior. Secondly, an evaluation system is developed to assess AV’s feasibility on longitudinal roads, based on safety indicators (rear-end collisions occurrence) and comfort indicators (axial acceleration, vertical acceleration, and vertical acceleration change rate). Lastly, the feasibility of ACC-AVs on existing longitudinal profile roads is simulated and evaluated. The results indicate that, on straight slope section, ACC-AVs may experience rear-end collisions on downhill sections with design speeds below 100 km/h; when safety requirements are met, both uphill and downhill sections exhibit good comfort levels. For the vertical curve section, comfort is also favorable in segments with low design speeds and large vertical curve radii, however, as curve radii decrease or design speeds increase, comfort deteriorates. The findings of this study provide a reference for optimizing highway profile design for AVs.</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"> <div class="htmlview paragraph">This Recommended Practice provides a taxonomy for motor vehicle <i>driving automation systems</i> that perform part or all of the <i>dynamic driving task</i> (<i>DDT</i>) on a <i>sustained</i> basis and that range in level from <i>no driving automation</i> (level 0) to <i>full driving automation</i> (level 5). It provides detailed definitions for these six levels of <i>driving automation</i> in the context of <i>motor vehicles</i> (hereafter also referred to as “<i>vehicle</i>” or “<i>vehicles</i>”) and their <i>operation</i> on roadways. These level definitions, along with additional supporting terms and definitions provided herein, can be used to describe the full range of <i>driving automation features</i> equipped on <i>motor vehicles</i> in a functionally consistent and coherent manner. “On-road” refers to publicly accessible roadways (including parking areas and private campuses that permit public access) that collectively serve users of <i>vehicles</i> of all classes and <i>driving automation</i> levels (including no <i>driving automation</i>), as well as motorcyclists, pedal cyclists, and pedestrians.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The levels apply to the <i>driving automation feature(s)</i> that are engaged in any given instance of on-road <i>operation</i> of an equipped <i>vehicle</i>. As such, although a given <i>vehicle</i> may be equipped with a <i>driving automation system</i> that is capable of delivering multiple <i>driving automation features</i> that perform at different levels, the level of <i>driving automation</i> exhibited in any given instance is determined by the <i>feature(s)</i> that are engaged.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">This document also refers to three primary actors in <i>driving</i>: the (human) <i>driver</i>, the <i>driving automation system</i>, and other <i>vehicle</i> systems and components. These other <i>vehicle</i> systems (or the <i>vehicle</i> in general terms) do not include the <i>driving automation system</i> in this model, even though as a practical matter a <i>driving automation system</i> may actually share hardware and software components with other <i>vehicle</i> systems, such as a processing module(s) or operating code.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The levels of <i>driving automation</i> are defined by reference to the specific role played by each of the three primary actors in performance of the <i>DDT</i>. “Role” in this context refers to the expected role of a given primary actor, based on the design of the <i>driving automation system</i> in question and not necessarily to the actual performance of a given primary actor. For example, a <i>driver</i> who fails to <i>monitor</i> the roadway during engagement of a level 1 adaptive cruise control (ACC) system still has the role of <i>driver</i>, even while s/he is neglecting it.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph"><i>Active safety systems</i>, such as electronic stability control and automated emergency braking, and certain types of driver assistance systems, such as lane keeping assistance, are excluded from the scope of this <i>driving automation</i> taxonomy because they do not perform part or all of the <i>DDT</i> on a <i>sustained</i> basis and, rather, merely provide momentary intervention during potentially hazardous situations. Due to the momentary nature of the actions of <i>active safety systems</i>, their intervention does not change or eliminate the role of the <i>driver</i> in performing part or all of the <i>DDT,</i> and thus are not considered to be <i>driving automation</i>.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">It should, however, be noted that crash avoidance features, including intervention-type <i>active safety systems</i>, may be included in <i>vehicles</i> equipped with <i>driving automation systems</i> at any level. For <i>ADS</i>-equipped <i>vehicles</i> (i.e., levels 3-5) that perform the complete <i>DDT</i>, crash avoidance capability is part of <i>ADS</i> functionality.</div></div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">A space station must be periodically resupplied with spares and vital materials, both to keep the crew alive and to maintain the station in an operable status to fulfill its mission. Furthermore, it is contemplated that crews must be rotated at specified intervals for psychophysiological reasons. Resupply and crew rotation missions must meet severe performance, logistics, and reliability constraints.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">This paper concerns the probabilities associated with the many parameters that control successful rendezvous for space station logistic missions. These variables are: (<span class="xref">1</span>) launch-on-time (probability of completion of countdown at a precise time), (<span class="xref">2</span>) length of resupply interval, (3) synchronism (repetitive cycle) of station orbit, (4) launch stand turnaround time, (5) number of committed launch vehicles, (6) number of stands, (7) countdown and flight (through rendezvous) reliability, (8) length of “launch-window” time, and (9) acceptable launch weather probability during a specified time period.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">All these parameters are combined in a mathematical model that provides system operational design criteria. The model involves a unique application of binomial expansions relating number of vehicles, stand turnaround time, orbit synchronism, and weather probability. These expansions generate the probability of having acceptable weather on required number of launch days. This probability is then multiplied by the functional redundancy factor of the overall probability to rendezvous model. This factor relates number of vehicles committed to achieve the overall probability of rendezvous requirement. Parametric presentation of variable reliabilities dependent upon precise and “wide-window” launch times and orbit phasing time are discussed.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The system integration of these parameters and constraints by means of a straightforward and precise model demonstrates the criticality of variable weather and the need for a wider tolerance in acceptable launch-weather criteria. The technique is a means for providing probability tradeoffs for number of vehicles and launch stands in system operational cost effectiveness studies.</div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">Efforts to improve urban air quality have shown positive results in some regions, however, in several major urban areas air quality has not significantly improved despite drastic reductions in allowed emissions from individual vehicle sources. The primary reason for this is the dramatic growth in both the number of vehicles and, due to relatively low energy prices, the number of miles driven. In addition, pollution also occurs in connection with the operation of the large production and distribution infrastructure for gasoline and diesel fuels. As a result, extensive non-attainment areas continue to exist.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Further mitigation of vehicle and vehicle-related emissions have been enacted as part of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, but it is generally recognized that further air quality improvements in this area are becoming increasingly costly. The problem of diminishing returns for conventional fuel-powered transportation systems suggests that alternative approaches should be closely examined to see which, if any, might offer more effective solutions to urban air pollution or be used in combination with currently planned approaches to reduce total environmental protection costs.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">One possible alternative is the substitution of electric vehicles for gasoline and diesel vehicles in sufficient numbers to contribute effectively to the achievement of existing and proposed goals for center-city non-attainment areas. The advantage of battery-powered vehicles is the consolidation of emissions to a small number of electricity production facilities, generally located outside the urban core, where control of such emissions is easier and more cost effective. However, vehicles powered by batteries alone typically have marginal performance characteristics and limited range.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">This paper presents a total systems approach to the evaluation of electric vehicles and the interaction of the many various system variables in arriving at an understanding of how and where such vehicles will be utilized. The model presented considers the following principal electric vehicles impact factors: market, government, industry and technology. Each of this primary factors is then divided into their constituent components to arrive at a total system model. Forecast of various system interactions are presented and discussed.</div>