AI Chatbots and Cognitive Control: Enhancing Executive Functions Through Chatbot Interactions: A Systematic Review.

Executive function, which is a set of thinking skills that includes stopping unwanted responses, being flexible, and remembering information needed to solve problems, is a challenge for many children on the autism spectrum. This study tested whether executive function could be improved with a computerized executive function training program under the guidance of a coach who reinforced the use of executive function skills. Seventy children with autism spectrum disorder from age 7 to 11 years of age participated in the study. They were randomly assigned to receive training or to a waiting group. The tests most likely to determine whether the training may be effective were chosen from a larger battery before the study started and included one task measuring brain responses, two measures of executive function in the lab, and a parent questionnaire. Changes in social functioning and repetitive behaviors were also explored. All children assigned to training completed the program and families generally reported the experience was positive. Brain responses of the training group changed following training, but not within the waiting group during a similar time period. Children who received training did not exhibit behavioral changes during the two the lab-based tasks. Parent report on questionnaires indicated that neither group showed a significant change in their broad use of executive function in other settings. Yet, children who received training were reported to have fewer restricted and repetitive behaviors following training. These initial findings suggest that short executive function training activities are feasible and may improve some functioning of school-aged children on the autism spectrum.

Background: Individuals with obesity are known to present cognitive deficits, especially in executive functions. Executive functions play an important role in health and success throughout the whole life and have been related to food decision-making and to the ability to maintain energy balance. It is possible to improve executive functions through targeted training. This would involve brain plasticity changes that could be studied through connectivity MRI. The general hypothesis of this study is that executive functions training in children with obesity can improve food choices and produce cognitive and neuroimaging changes (structural and functional connectivity), as well as improve emotional state and quality of life.Methods: Randomized controlled double-blind trial with 12-month follow-up. Thirty children with obesity will be randomly allocated into “executive training” (Cognifit with adaptive difficulty + Cogmed) or “control task” group (Cognifit without adaptive difficulty). Both groups will attend 30–45 min of individual gamified training (Cogmed and/or Cognifit systems) by iPad, five times per week during 6 weeks. Cogmed and Cognifit software are commercially available from Pearson and Cognifit, respectively. Participants will receive an iPad with both apps installed for a 6-week use. Participants will also receive counseling diet information via presentations sent to the iPad and will wear a Fitbit Flex 2 tracker to monitor daily activity and sleep patterns. Main outcomes will be cognitive, emotional, food decision, and quality-of-life measures, as well as neuroimaging measures. Participants are evaluated at baseline (T0), after treatment (T1), and 12 months since baseline (T2).Discussion: Longitudinal study with active control group and 3 time points: baseline, immediately after treatment, and 1 year after baseline. Threefold treatment: executive function training, psychoeducation, and feedback on activity/sleep tracking. We will evaluate the transfer effects of the intervention, including emotional and functional outcomes, as well as the effects on neural plasticity by connectivity MRI.Trial registration: This project has been registered in ClinicalTrials.gov (trial registration number NCT03615274), August 3, 2018.

BackgroundADHD is associated with deficits in executive functions. Cognitive training is a promising nonpharmacological intervention for ADHD, however, there is insufficient evidence to guide the selection of training for individuals with ADHD. This pilot study aims to investigate the efficacy of executive function training targeting key executive dysfunctions in ADHD, compared with general executive function training which targets other executive functions.MethodsA total of 127 subjects (6–12 years) diagnosed with ADHD were allocated to receive one of two different cognitive trainings. ADHD symptoms and cognitive functions were evaluated using parent-rated scales and CANTAB cognitive assessments. All participants were required to complete 48 training sessions within a two-month period.Results94 out of 127 children completed the required training and assessments. Both ADHD executive function training group and general executive function training group showed significant improvement in ADHD symptoms on the ADHD Rating Scale and in executive function on the assessment of CANTAB. There was no significant difference in improvements between the two groups. Subgroup analysis suggested that children who had ADHD-RS total scores less than or equal to 28 at baseline showed greater improvement following ADHD executive function training.ConclusionsThis study indicates that cognitive training can improve ADHD symptoms and executive function, with no difference in efficacy between targeted and generalized cognitive training. In addition, individuals with lower symptom severity may benefit more from training targeting key ADHD executive dysfunctions.

As mnemonic utilization deficit in older adults associates with age-related decline in executive function, we hypothesized that memory strategy training combined with executive function training might induce larger training effect in memory and broader training effects in non-memory outcomes than pure memory training. The present study compared the effects of combined cognitive training (executive function training plus memory strategy training) to pure memory strategy training. Forty healthy older adults were randomly assigned to a combined cognitive training group or a memory strategy training group. A control group receiving no training was also included. Combined cognitive training group received 16 sessions of training (eight sessions of executive function training followed by eight sessions of memory strategy training). Memory training group received 16 sessions of memory strategy training. The results partly supported our hypothesis in that indeed improved performance on executive function was only found in combined training group, whereas memory performance increased less in combined training compared to memory strategy group. Results suggest that combined cognitive training may be less efficient than pure memory training in memory outcomes, though the influences from insufficient training time and less closeness between trained executive function and working memory could not be excluded; however it has broader training effects in non-memory outcomes. Clinical Trial Registration: www.chictr.org.cn, identifier ChiCTR-OON-16007793.

Recent psycholinguistics research suggests that the executive function (EF) skill known as conflict resolution – the ability to adjust behavior in the service of resolving among incompatible representations – is important for several language processing tasks such as lexical and syntactic ambiguity resolution, verbal fluency, and common-ground assessment. Here, we discuss work showing that various EF skills can be enhanced through consistent practice with working-memory tasks that tap these EFs, and, moreover, that improvements on the training tasks transfer across domains to novel tasks that may rely on shared underlying EFs. These findings have implications for language processing and could launch new research exploring if EF training, within a “process-specific” framework, could be used as a remediation tool for improving general language use. Indeed, work in our lab demonstrates that EF training that increases conflict-resolution processes has selective benefits on an untrained sentence-processing task requiring syntactic ambiguity resolution, which relies on shared conflict-resolution functions. Given claims that conflict-resolution abilities contribute to a range of linguistic skills, EF training targeting this process could theoretically yield wider performance gains beyond garden-path recovery. We offer some hypotheses on the potential benefits of EF training as a component of interventions to mitigate general difficulties in language processing. However, there are caveats to consider as well, which we also address.

Cognitive training programs have been attempted to improve cognition in cognitively vulnerable people living with HIV (PLWH). Some have attempted to improve episodic memory or speed of processing, while others have used an individualized cognitive domain approach targeting each person's cognitive deficits. Although effective, none of these approaches considered the influence of cognitive intra-individual variability (IIV). Cognitive IIV refers to the fluctuations in one's individual cognitive ability across cognitive domains (dispersion) or within the same test (inconsistency). Greater cognitive IIV predicts cognitive decline as well as decreased cognitive integrity and increased neuropathology. Some neuroscientists posited that poor executive functioning, known as the Executive Dyscontrol Hypothesis, increases cognitive IIV. Thus, if we can improve executive functioning, we may be able to decrease cognitive IIV and improve overall cognitive functioning. This article provides the rationale and protocol for a feasibility clinical trial examining an executive functioning training intervention in middle-aged and older PLWH. This study utilizes a two-arm baseline/posttest experimental design to examine the primary aim 1 (feasibility and acceptability) and the exploratory aim 1 (cognition) in 120 community-dwelling PLWH aged 40 and older. Participants will be randomized into one of the two arms: 1) 20 hours of computerized executive functioning training group, or 2) a no-contact control group. The proposed training time is 10 to 12 weeks (1 to 2 one-hour training sessions/week, while working around participants' schedules). At baseline and posttest, participants will receive a 1.5 to 2-hour assessment that includes many measures including the Connor's Continuous Performance Test (Version 3), and a 50-minute self-administered computerized cognitive performance battery (BRACE+ = BrainBaseline Assessment of Cognition and Everyday Functioning). This study tests an innovative intervention designed to reduce cognitive IIV; to our knowledge, no other study has targeted cognitive IIV as an intervention outcome.

The study examined how executive function (EF) training could improve children’s emotional competence (EC). Children (N = 55; Mage = 50.64 months) were assigned into two groups, namely the EF training group and the no-training group. The present study attempted to use a 2 (group: EF training VS no-training) × 2 (test time: pretest VS post-test) between-and- within-subjects experimental design to investigate the effect of EF training on the improvement of EC for 4-year-old children. Results showed that, (1) children in EF training group had significantly higher scores on EC than that of no-training group; (2) The change of inhibition control and working memory could significantly predict their variation of EC. These results suggested that the improvement of EC caused by EF training could be linked to the ability of inhibition control and working memory.

Over the last several decades, research on executive function in children has flourished, producing a wealth of empirical findings. These findings have raised many theoretical and methodological questions that warrant attention and are addressed in this special issue. This introduction to the special issue reviews some of the recent history of the field before introducing the seven target articles. We introduce these articles in the context of current theoretical and methodological issues: domain generality versus domain specificity of executive function, ecological and cultural validity of executive function measures, executive function training and transfer, and the nature of relations between executive function and achievement and other outcomes. This diverse set of articles collectively provides many fresh, testable ideas that promise to advance the field and usher in the next wave of theory-guided executive function research.

Chapter 8 - Executive function training for children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

Executive functions (EF) are impaired in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). It may be especially critical for interventions to target EF in early childhood given the developmental progression of EF deficits that may contribute to later functional impairments. This proof-of-concept study examined the initial efficacy of an intervention program on EF and ADHD. We also examined child performance on three neurocognitive tasks assessing cognitive flexibility, auditory/visual attention, and sustained/selective attention. Children with ADHD (ages 3-7) and their parents were randomized to receive an intervention targeting metacognitive EF deficits (n=13) or to a waitlist control condition (n=12). Linear model analysis of covariance compared groups on parent EF ratings, blinded clinician ratings of ADHD symptoms and improvement, and child performance on neurocognitive measures. Children who received the intervention significantly improved on parent ratings of attention shifting and emotion regulation in addition to clinician ratings of inattention. Moderate effect sizes showed additional intervention effects on parent ratings of inhibition, memory, and planning, and clinician ratings of hyperactivity/impulsivity and overall improvement. Small effect sizes were observed for improvement on child neurocognitive measures. Although replication with a larger sample and an active control group is needed, EF training with a metacognitive focus is a potentially promising intervention for young children with ADHD.

Neurocognitive impairments are the best predictors of community functioning for individuals with schizophrenia-spectrum disorders. Cognitive remediation is a psychological intervention designed to improve neurocognitive abilities and community functioning. However, different theoretical approaches have developed without any studies directly comparing them. Additionally, with a movement towards personalizing cognitive enhancing techniques, greater emphasis is being placed on determining predictors of treatment response. The current study is the first to compare the two dominant approaches to cognitive remediation (training of executive skills and training of perceptual skills) and examine predictors of treatment response. 70 outpatients with schizophrenia-spectrum disorders were randomized to receive either 6 weeks of executive training (ET) or perceptual training (PT). Electrophysiological activity, neurocognition, functional competence, case-manager rated community functioning, clinical symptoms, and self-report measures were assessed at baseline, post-treatment, and 12-weeks post-treatment. There were minimal differences between groups at the post-treatment visit. PT improved EEG mismatch negativity amplitude significantly more than ET immediately post-treatment (d = 0.64), however, the effect did not persist at 12-week follow-up (d = 0.01). Examining long-term effects, at 12-week follow-up, ET increased EEG theta power during an n-back working memory task (d = 1.01), neurocognition (d = 0.64), functional competence (d = 0.67), and case manager rated community functioning (d = 0.53) to a greater extent than PT. Larger P300 amplitude (B = .47) and theta power during a working memory task (B = .34) at baseline were significantly associated with larger improvements in neurocognition post-treatment. Baseline mismatch negativity amplitude was not significantly associated with treatment response (B = .17), and no baseline EEG measures predicted functional outcomes. Both PT and ET improved neurophysiological mechanisms specific to their domains of intervention, however, only ET resulted in improvement in neurocognition and functioning. Improvements in favor of ET did not appear immediately post-treatment but emerged 12 weeks after the end of active treatment. Training executive functioning may prime further cognitive and functional improvements. Executive functions may be more functionally relevant than other cognitive domains and when addressed in treatment lead to better outcomes. Greater P300 amplitude and theta power may be associated with learning-related processes which are important for acquisition and retention of skills during cognitive training programs.

Modulating fluid intelligence performance through combined cognitive training and brain stimulation

Executive function training curriculum to enhance emotional intelligence in early childhood: Theory adaptation in educational design research

The growing integration of artificial intelligence (AI) chatbots in English language learning has sparked increasing interest in their potential to enhance learners’ willingness to communicate (WTC) in English. Nonetheless, comprehensive syntheses of their impact remain limited. This study presents a narrative meta-synthesis of empirical evidence on AI chatbot-assisted English learning in the Asian English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context, including Iran, South Korea, Taiwan, China, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Thailand, and Vietnam. A systematic search of prominent databases (Scopus, Web of Science, EBSCO, and Google Scholar) yielded pertinent studies, which were thematically analyzed to synthesize quantitative and qualitative results. The synthesis reveals that regular chatbot interaction enhances WTC, communicative confidence, and motivation by reducing speaking anxiety and providing adaptive, nonjudgmental feedback. Learners reported increased fluency and engagement when using AI chatbots such as Google Assistant, Alexa, and ChatGPT, although technological limitations and limited conversational depth occasionally hindered sustained interaction. Although most studies show moderate to strong short-term effects, evidence on long-term transfer to real-world communication remains scarce. Overall, the findings emphasize AI chatbots as valuable mediators of communicative readiness and confidence among Asian EFL learners, while emphasizing the necessity of longitudinal and context-sensitive research to refine their pedagogical application.

In recent times, the technology of artificial intelligence (AI) has been evolved in almost all domains and has significantly benefited customer lives. In fact, consumer-facing technologies have become the most popular and in-demand services. Given the increasing admiration of AI chatbots as a means to promote and support the positive consumer experience, understanding how AI chatbots influence consumer behavior is critical for both marketeers and researchers. However, despite numerous studies being explored on AI technology, there is an absence of comprehensive research examining AI chatbot interaction quality in shaping trust and, consequently, consumer purchase intention. Our research aims to present an empirical investigation how human-like AI chatbot engagements influence consumers’ trust and purchase intentions, whilst focusing on mediating role of humanization. Our study employs SEM (Structural Equation Modeling) using Smart-PLS 4 analyzing data collected from 366 respondents obtained through a self-administered questionnaire. Henceforth, our results show that the quality of interaction with AI chatbot improves trust and has a positive effect on consumer purchase intentions. Furthermore, this study provides significant insights into the behavioral implications of AI chatbots, whereas human-like characteristic enhances the effect of trust on purchase intention. This also contributes to the understanding of AI in marketing by proposing a novel perspective to appreciate humanization in AI-driven consumer interactions.