All Quiet on the Western Front?

The article is devoted to the research of legal and organizational principles of ensuring information security of states in the modern conditions of development of information society. Theoretical approaches to the definition of the essence of «information security» and «national security» are analyzed and their interrelation is proved. The urgency of the chosen topic of scientific research is caused by the fact that confrontation in the information sphere becomes a fundamentally new sphere of competition between the states. The rapid pace of development of information and communication technologies, creation of a global information space has led to many cybernetic threats in important spheres of political, economic, social and cultural life of society. The paper presents the results of the analysis of information security of the state as a factor of influence on the national security of the state as a whole, and thus defines information security as an integral part of national security. Given the magnitude of the global information challenge, the inability to address these issues through the efforts of individual states, the article explores the issue of international cooperation in providing international information security within the United Nations. The contents of the basic international legal acts adopted by the UN General Assembly, which indicate the threats to the international security of the information space and the need for the states to take joint action to counter the challenges in the field. Particular attention is paid to the peculiarities of regional cooperation of states in providing information security within the European Union. It is determined that this area of EU activity is one of the priorities for today. The main EU normative acts are analyzed, which present the European approach to the problem of information security. The general characteristics of the activities of the special bodies of the EU (European Union Agency for Network and Information Security - ENISA, European Cybercrime Centre), whose activities are aimed at providing information security, are given. The article explores the issues of guaranteeing information security of Ukraine and protection of the national information space. The types of real and potential information threats to the information space of Ukraine are revealed, as well as practical recommendations are given on improving the state information policy and creating an effective system of counteracting cyberspace threats. Emphasis is placed on the fact that state information policy should reflect urgent issues that have arisen in the international information and information security sphere. Effective implementation of strategic priorities, basic principles and tasks of the state information security policy requires improvement of legal and organizational mechanisms of information security management.

The monograph is devoted to topical issues of international security and strategic stability in the context of accelerated development of information and communication technologies. It justifies the importance of ensuring international information security. The monograph examines the possibility of establishing an ITarms control regime under the UN auspices. Different aspects of regulation of software security systems and of the use of supercomputers in the context of the international information security are examined. The impact of information and communication technologies on strategic stability is analyzed. This monograph is addressed to specialists in the field of information and communication technologies and international security, university lecturers, students and graduate students of universities, as well as a wide range of readers.

INTRODUCTION. In the world, due to the growing trends in the militarization of the information space, military actions in this area are becoming a reality and a prospect for a number of operational, tactical and other advantages in comparison with military actions in traditional forms within the classical theaters of war. Information military confrontation will be carried out through the use of a new type of weapon – information, which does not fit into the established paradigm of approaches to traditional weapons, which, of course, gives rise to many questions and contradictory expert opinions, but is in dire need of further development and comprehensive research.MATERIALS AND METHODS. Given the complexity and multi-component nature of the topic under study, the study is based on the results of the analysis of scientific works by Russian and foreign legal scholars on international humanitarian law (IHL), experts in the field of military affairs, and specialists in the field of information technology. The author also examines key international treaties on IHL, on the topic of international information security (IIS), which together form the basis for the international legal qualification of information weapons as a means of waging war in the context of the gradual adaptation of IHL norms to situations of hostile use of information space. In conducting the study, analytical and review materials of the ICRC on the issue of cyber operations during an armed conflict were used. The methodological basis is made up of general scientific and special research methods.RESEARCH RESULTS. The results of the conducted study established two formed concepts reflecting approaches to IIS and threats in this area through the prism of cybertopics and information aspect, within the framework of each of which specific terminology is formed, including approaches to defining methods and means of conducting military operations. It was determined that the domestic doctrine is built around the information agenda of security, which determined the development of the definition of “information weapons” and the study of its status as a promising means of waging war in the information space. It seems significant to identify and generalize doctrinal trends in the qualification of information weapons as weapons of mass destruction or conventional weapons, as well as to establish new approaches to regulating the development and use of information weapons in armed conflicts.DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. The article presents the author’s objective assessments of the existing doctrinal approaches of both domestic and foreign scientists on the issue of international legal qualification of methods and means of waging war in the information space in general and information weapons as a means of waging war in particular. Separately, international treaties on IHL and IIS are considered in terms of the possibility of applying their provisions to regulate the restriction of the behavior of warring parties in information warfare, taking into account a certain adaptation of IHL norms to the conditions of hostile use of information technologies. Prospects for further development of the IHL doctrine on regulating the development and use of information weapons in armed conflicts are identified.

The author examines in detail such aspects as the international information security of the Union State of the Republic of Belarus and the Russian Federation. It is separately noted that special attention is being paid to issues of legal support for information security today in the light of modern geopolitical processes and their impact on all spheres of life. He draws attention to the fact that one of the tasks of modern society is the search for universal solutions to information security issues. One of the key roles in this issue is played by the Russian Federation, which initiates international conventions on information protection and ensuring international information security.Today, the formation of a common information space and the maintenance of international information security is one of the most important stages in the implementation and achievement of the main objectives of the Union State. These tasks are due to the fact that in the modern information and digital world, the Republic of Belarus and the Russian Federation are increasing international cooperation in the field of legal information security in regional and bilateral formats. The methodological basis of this research is a system of modern general scientific and private law methods. The study of the formation, development, place and role of the legal provision of information security of the Union State of the Russian Federation and the Republic of Belarus was conducted using the following general scientific methods: analysis and synthesis, abstraction and modeling, generalization, description, etc. The main conclusions of this study are that the analysis of the basic provisions of interstate regulations allowed us to determine that the common goal in the integration association is to formulate common rules of conduct for states in the information space in order to legally ensure information security in the face of new challenges, threats and risks through international cooperation of the member states of the Union State. At the same time, based on the analysis of international documents and theoretical positions of the science of international and information law, we believe that in the future it is necessary to ensure on an ongoing basis the theoretical, legal, scientific and methodological orientation of the development and implementation of unified approaches to the legislation of the two member states of the Union State regulating the sphere of international information security.

The article is devoted to the consideration of the main changes taking place in the system of ensuring international information security after the start of a special military operation in Ukraine. An attempt is made to predict the challenges and risks that the IIS system will face in the future. The priority transformations are connected with the negotiation process within the UN, which, in the context of increasing political antagonism between the key subjects of the dialogue, is becoming increasingly politicized and is beginning to experience some difficulties. It is assumed that in the conditions of the new political reality, the issue of “comprehensive” counteraction to international cybercrime will remain unresolved. There is some fragmentation of the international information security system itself, which is experiencing centrifugal tendencies in terms of promoting alternative approaches to solving key issues in this sphere. Finally, it can be expected that the United States, in interaction with Russia, will more actively engage in a proactive strategy of so-called defend forward, which should be implemented through the concept of persistent engagement. The preliminary conclusions demonstrated by the actions in Ukraine regarding the role and place of cyber attacks directly within the framework of the armed conflict are also considered. It is assumed that in the near future cyber attacks will not be considered as a means of achieving real strategic effects on the battlefield, where conventional weapons play a dominant role. An attempt is made to give some recommendations on maintaining a certain dynamic of the development of the IIS system.

Better information on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and mitigation potential in the agricultural sector is necessary to manage these emissions and identify responses that are consistent with the food security and economic development priorities of countries. Critical activity data (what crops or livestock are managed in what way) are poor or lacking for many agricultural systems, especially in developing countries. In addition, the currently available methods for quantifying emissions and mitigation are often too expensive or complex or not sufficiently user friendly for widespread use.The purpose of this focus issue is to capture the state of the art in quantifying greenhouse gases from agricultural systems, with the goal of better understanding our current capabilities and near-term potential for improvement, with particular attention to quantification issues relevant to smallholders in developing countries. This work is timely in light of international discussions and negotiations around how agriculture should be included in efforts to reduce and adapt to climate change impacts, and considering that significant climate financing to developing countries in post-2012 agreements may be linked to their increased ability to identify and report GHG emissions (Murphy et al 2010, CCAFS 2011, FAO 2011).

The study is dedicated to the approaches of the LACB leading states to the problem of international information security (IIS). Besides, the influence of the USA on how this topic is perceived within the Organization of American States (OAS), which nowadays is the principal security institution in the Western Hemisphere, is considered. On the basis of analyzing doctrinal documents, the author draws a conclusion that the OAS adheres to the American approach, based on the international cooperation only in fight against ICT use for terrorist and criminal purposes, while the leading LACB states add militarization of the digital environment to the list of threats.

The ubiquitous implementation of information and communication technologies (ICTs) is giving rise to cross-border security threats that require joint international responses. Fragmentation and growing conflict in the global information space complicate international cooperation within the UN to form a comprehensive global information security regime. Western countries actively support the formation of a cyber security regime based on Western values and promoted as a general initiative of the international community, without taking the position of developing countries into account. An alternative approach focused on securing digital sovereignty is being promoted by many non-Western negotiating platforms, among which the BRICS occupies an important place. This article aims to assess the potential of the BRICS influence on the international ICT security regime and the main directions of the association’s activities in this area. In this paper, the BRICS ICT security agenda is studied on the basis of official documents of the association’s annual summits and the main commitments made by the member countries. The discourse analysis of the strategic planning documents of the BRICS countries allows to identify their priorities in this area, and to assess the potential for the implementation of these obligations at the BRICS level. All the BRICS countries focus on ensuring ICT sovereignty. However, Russia, India, and China consider digital development and ICT security as the most important area of state policy and international cooperation. They are also more advanced when it comes to digital technologies compared to the other BRICS countries, which means they are more vulnerable. In turn, Brazil and South Africa do not consider this area as a priority, placing greater emphasis on ICT development, access to technology, and bridging the digital divide. However, all five countries are interested in solving the problem of extremism and terrorism in the digital sphere, which is also a promising area for BRICS multilateral cooperation. A study of the voting of the BRICS countries in the UN and an analysis of their participation in alternative initiatives in the formation of a cyber security regime promoted by Western countries showed the high efficiency of BRICS as a negotiating platform. Its main contribution in this respect is the development of a common position on the norms and principles of the international information security regime and their support at the UN level. Thus, BRICS can make a constructive contribution to the formation of the norms and principles of the international ICT security regime based on the principles of respect for state sovereignty, the internationalization of internet governance, and combatting to the criminal use of ICTs. An important advantage of BRICS in this area is the possibility of aggregating the interests and positions of developing countries.

When looking for qualified specialists in the field of IT and information security employers give preferences to candidates with professional certificates from reliable and worldwide recognized organisations. Attracting certified professionals allows the company to make the most efficient use of its staff and thereby increase its competitiveness. For qualified specialist, the certificate is a guarantee of his competence and the basis of confidence in a successful professional career. Today, the market of IT and information security professional certification offers both certification programs from well-known software or hardware manufacturers, as well as vendor-neutral certifications, developed by expert organizations in this field and not related to the products of individual manufacturers. Vendor-neutral certification programs provide a comprehensive approach to information security and ensure that certified specialists acquire understanding of technical and managerial aspects of information protection, as well as possess a wide range of diverse knowledge and practical skills. The article researches the most popular and demanded on the market certification courses in information security from (ISC)2, ISACA, EC-Council and CompTIA. The authors found that reviewed certifications have the following common features: short training period of the certification programs, usually 5-7 days; joining both basic and specialized components within the courses; the use of well-known and mostly open hardware and software during training; combining various forms and methods of training: face-to-face and distance learning with an instructor, self-study, online tests and special learning platforms; conducting a comprehensive exam with the issuance of a certificate; three-year validity period of the certificate which must be confirmed through participation in scientific and practical activities in the specialty. The study of international certification for information security specialists in Ukraine showed that there are several companies-authorized providers of certification services: ISSP Training Center, Fast Lane Group, Kyiv Chapter of ISACA, PwC Ukraine, which certify information security professionals through vendor-neutral courses, as well as certification programs of software and hardware developers.

The necessity of the development of advanced technologies is considering as the essential condition for the ensuring of the world leadership in the contemporary world. But the rapid growth of such technologies and their implementation into all spheres of our life increase the risk of their malicious use in the future. African countries are no exception in this regard. They regularly become victims of cyber-attacks, which every year become more and more high-tech. There has been undertaken in the article the analysis of the existing practice and risks of malicious use of advanced technologies in Sub-Saharan Africa. The author notes that today the banking sector is most exposed to cyber-attacks. But advanced technologies are gradually beginning to be used also for the mind management and creating the public opinion convenient for perpetrators who are aimed on the increase of social tension in certain countries or the entire regions. Undoubtedly even the possibility of such attacks poses a very serious threat to international information and psychological security. Finally, the author comes to the conclusion that African countries should develop effective supranational instruments aimed at improving their information security and preventing further malicious use of advanced technologies. Until this happens, it seems unlikely that African countries will even come close to solving the problem of ensuring their information security. So their information space will continue to be subjected to large-scale cyber-attacks that pose a serious threat not only to the security of individuals, but also to the entire national security system of the state.

The international issue of climate change is appearing on domestic agendas with increasing regularity. More than one hundred nations have now ratified the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (the Kyoto Protocol), which entered into force on the 16th of February 2005. The importance of the domestic climate change policy process of developed countries is therefore increasing. Reduction of emissions must take place at the national or sub-national level. International negotiations cannot make reductions; they can only direct that reductions take place. Therefore any international agreement must be enacted into national law for its objectives to be met. An understanding of the factors that influence policy selection will help us to identify what makes an international treaty successful on the national front. Governments, including the United States, are agreed that climate change is an important issue. While each has the same range of policy instruments at their disposal, each chooses to address the problem in different ways. This thesis focuses on the influence that differing political and legal cultures exert on the development and selection of climate change policies in the United Kingdom and California. It draws on qualitative data collected through interviews with key players in the policy process in the subject jurisdictions in conjunction with analysis of relevant documents, official and otherwise. The study suggests that the political and legal culture of a jurisdiction plays a major role in the determination of policy, providing new and valuable insights into the policy-making process in the subject jurisdictions. Its findings constitute an argument for giving greater consideration to political and legal cultural issues during international negotiations with the aim of framing international agreements with a greater potential for adoption into domestic law. This thesis covers the period up to December 2004. Any significant developments between December 2004 and August 2007 affecting the research or the conclusions reached herein have been noted in footnotes.

Based on lessons learned from examining the relationship between several international organizations and African higher education, this paper unveils the subtleties and complexities of power dynamics in negotiations, provides illustrative cases to enhance such understanding, discusses the implications of power dynamics in negotiations over higher education policy, and provides a glimpse at the necessary ingredients to build sustainable and healthy international partnerships. Based in a conceptual framework of power dynamics, the paper hinges on international regimes for its theoretical foundation, and on the intersection of conflicting agendas for a transformative higher education in Africa, as advocated by the Association of African Universities (AAU) and the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS), for its historical framework. An understanding of the subtleties and complexities of power dynamics in international negotiations is critical for Africa at this crossroads of her relationship with BRIC countries, particularly amidst the competition between China and other superpowers and their respective organizations over Africa as a market arena. This understanding will also be important for examining newly claimed ‘reformed’ policies originating from the historically dominant Western countries because (a) the dimensions of this relationship are still being negotiated/established, thus a good time to address power dynamics; (b) Africa is engaged in a quest for development through partnerships; and, (c) African scholars are often confronted with the idea of a higher education system by African design. With a focus on Africa that simultaneously highlights the problem of developing nations more generally, this paper discusses four categories of power – hermeneutical, informational, manipulative, and monetary – that must be taken seriously into account in international negotiations as they have dire consequences for the developing world.

This article consists of a theoretical essay, essentially supported by bibliographical research strongly complemented with our own experience in most subjects and it has a qualitative and exploratory bias. It consists of an introduction to the research object where we make a broad approach in a world undergoing constant changes specially related to scientific and technical aspects of science, technology, and innovation diplomacy (ST&I) during the last two decades. Among many others, to address the issue we have chosen some relevant areas like artificial intelligence (AI), internet of things (IoT), cyber diplomacy, and quantum technology. We also make the linkages between the ST&I aspects and diplomacy, and its relationship with some aspects of military technologies. In this aspect we reinforce the relevance – a point of concern – of the proliferation of military technologies by scientific collaboration, commercial trade, or other mechanisms. Despite the traditional scientific collaborations between thousands of groups all around the world, we show the importance of considering that both enemies and potential enemies, should be avoided of having access to certain critical and sensitive technologies. In this way, we show its relevance and importance as a strategic planning in national defense essential for the sovereignty of any country and international security.

During the first half of the twentieth century, the world’s economy experienced that protectionism is an evil that should be avoided. Considerable effort was taken to liberalize trade through international negotiations. In the form of GATT and WTO an institutional framework was developed to anticipate and prevent new forms of protectionism. The world economy has not yet experienced a global environmental crisis. Yet, the developed countries in particular have become increasingly aware of the threats of global pollution problems. International negotiations and agreements are devoted to aligning domestic policies towards the environment and to reaching international targets for pollution abatement. Ideally, two sets of instruments are needed for these two sets of goals, internalizing environ mental externalities and removing trade restrictions. Domestic environmental taxes and other instruments should ensure that private costs and benefits of domestic activity reflect social costs of pollution and benefits of environmental quality improvements. The removal of tariff and nontariff barriers to inter national trade should ensure that domestic activity fully exploits comparative advantages. Indeed, if an economy “gets prices right”, liberalizing trade is always welfare improving (see Chapter 2 of this volume).

The article analyzes the approaches of the United States of America, Russia, China, India and Brazil to the problem of legal regulation of international information and cyber security. The author considers the positions of the states in relation to the basic principles of the existing international documents in the field of information and cyber security, analyzes new initiatives in the field of developing international political and legal decisions in this area, and studies the actual practice of political regulation of this sphere at the national-state level. The author concludes that the development of general principles of political and legal regulation of the sphere of international information and cyber security becomes an urgent need for a policy of global security.