An Empirical Study for Human Behavior Analysis

Facial expression which carries rich information of body behavior is the leading carrier of human affective and the symbol of intelligence. The main purpose of this paper is to recognize 3D human facial expression. The research in this paper includes the expression feature extraction algorithm and fusion with different kinds of feature. To contain more local texture feature information, we proposed a new feature of 3D facial expression named Local Threshold Binary Pattern (LTBP) which based on Local Binary Pattern (LBP). We calculate the difference of gray value standard between neighboring pixels and the center pixel as a threshold to binary instead of the traditional LBP operation which only comparison of size between neighboring pixels and the center pixel. After we get the LTBP feature, we fuse the LTBP and HOG (Histogram of Oriented Gradient) features to get multi-feature fusion for 3D facial expression recognition. Our algorithm of 3D facial expression recognition comprises three steps: (1) extracting two sets of feature vectors and establishing the correlation criterion function between the two sets of feature vectors; (2) solving the two sets canonical projective vectors and extracting their canonical correlation features by the framework of canonical correlation analysis algorithm; (3) doing feature fusion for classification by using proposed strategy. We have performed comprehensive experiments on the BU-3DFE database which is presently the largest available 3D face database. We have achieved verification rates of more than 90% for the 3D facial expression recognition.

Face recognition is efficiently used in computer vision, pattern recognition, biometric, law enforcement, surveillance, criminal investigations, and missing person detection. However, face recognition is still a challenging task under variant illuminations, pose, expression, occlusion, and background. In this paper, we proposed a cascading of histogram of oriented gradients (HOG) and local binary pattern (LBP) feature extraction method on ORL face dataset, which can improve recognition rates while also addressing pose, scale, expression, and variant illumination issues. The facial recognition network was trained using various classifiers such as with KNN, SVM, and random forest (RF). The results have been shown that the accuracy rate of the combined LBP and HOG feature extraction method is better than individual LBP or HOG features for ORL database face recognition.

Communication is the ultimate of man’s search for conveying his ideas, emotions, and concepts. Dance is one of the media of communication through which dancers share notion of feelings, with the spectators through gestures, i.e., mudra. Gesture recognition propagates a concept without verbal speech or listening, and in dance recognition, the notion is transferred through various dance poses and actions. This activity in a way really paves way to enhance Indian Sign Language. This study focuses to solve the mudra resemblance in Bharatanatyam through a new system developed with image processing and classification technique using histogram of oriented gradient (HOG) feature extraction techniques and support vector machine (SVM) classifier. SVM classifies the features of HOG into mudras as text labels. Popular feature vectors such as scale-invariant feature transform (SIFT), speed up robust feature (SURF), and local binary pattern (LBP) are hardened against HOG for accuracy and speediness, and this innovative proposed concept is useful for online dance learners.

One of the most common causes of death worldwide is skin cancer and its incidence is increasing. To achieve optimal treatment and improve clinical outcomes for patients, precision skin cancer detection and classification approaches are required, which can be achieved through the application of feature extraction and machine learning algorithms. The development of such algorithms to identify important patterns from skin cancer image datasets enables early detection and more accurate classification and more effective treatment. Although previous studies have tried to detect skin cancer using feature extraction techniques such as HFF, HOG, and GLCM, some weaknesses still need to be improved. This research aims to combine various feature extraction methods such as Gray Level Co-occurrence Matrix, Histogram Oriented Gradients, and Local Binary Patterns and machine learning algorithms such as Support Vector Machine, Random Forest, and Gaussian Naïve Bayes in the classification process between Melanoma and Nevus skin cancers. In this research, the number of datasets used is 17,397 derived from the ISIC Dataset. The results showed that the Histogram Oriented Gradients method with Support Vector Machine algorithm achieved the highest accuracy of 92%. The combination of Gray Level Co-occurrence Matrix and Local Binary Patterns with Random Forest algorithm also achieved an accuracy of 92%, the combination of Gray Level Co-occurrence Matrix, Histogram Oriented Gradients, and Local Binary Patterns with Random Forest algorithm also resulted in an accuracy of 92%. These findings suggest that the combination of various feature extraction methods and machine learning algorithms can improve accuracy in skin cancer classification, which in turn can contribute to early detection and more effective treatment.

Investigation of acoustic and visual features for pig cough classification

This paper presents a real-time surveillance system for detecting and tracking people, which takes full advantage of local texture patterns, under a stationary monocular camera. A novel center-symmetric scale invariant local ternary pattern feature is put forward to combine with pattern kernel density estimation for building a pixel-level-based background model. The background model is then used to detect moving foreground objects on every newly captured frame. A variant of a fast human detector that utilizes local texture patterns is adopted to look for human objects from the foreground regions, and it is assisted by a head detector, which is proposed to find in advance the candidate locations of human, to reduce computational costs. Each human object is given a unique identity and is represented by a spatio-color-texture object model. The real-time performance of tracking is achieved by a fast mean-shift algorithm coupled with several efficient occlusion-handling techniques. Experiments on challenging video sequences show that the proposed surveillance system can run in real-time and is quite robust in segmenting and tracking people in complex environments that include appearance changes, abrupt motion, occlusions, illumination variations and clutter.

Biometrics is the study of unique characteristics present in the human body such as fingerprint, palm-print, retina, iris, footprint, etc. While other traits have been explored widely, only a few people have been considered the foot-palm region, despite having unique properties. Prior work has explored the foot shape features using length, width, major axis, minor axis, centroid, etc. but they are not reliable for personal verification due to similarity in the physical composition of two persons. It increases the demand for more unique features based on the footprint. Footprint texture features coming from creases of foot palm are unique and permanent like palmprint texture features. Hence the main objective of the paper is to investigate various kinds of texture feature techniques. These techniques will be further used in correct extraction of footprint features. After extraction of footprint features a detailed experimental analysis is performed to discover the uniqueness in foot texture. It is further utilized to test its viability as a human recognition trait. We describe a detailed feature extraction and classification technique applied to a collected footprint data-set. For feature extraction, we use three techniques: Gray Level Co-occurrence Matrix (GLCM), Histogram Oriented Gradient (HOG), and Local Binary Patterns (LBP). Feature classification is performed using four techniques: Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA), Support Vector Machine (SVM), K-Nearest Neighbor (KNN), and Ensemble Subspace Discriminant (ESD). GLCM provides less accuracy, while HOG generates a big feature vector which takes more execution time. LBP provides a trade-off between the accuracy and the execution time. Detailed quantitative experiments show: GLCM with LDA provides an accuracy of $$88.5\%$$ , HOG with Fine-KNN achieves $$86.5\%$$ accuracy and LBP with LDA achieves the accuracy of $$97.9\%$$ .

In this paper we present a system which is focused on developing algorithms for automatic annotation/articulation of humans passing through a surveillance camera in a way useful for describing a person/criminal by a crime scene witness. Each human is articulated/annotated based on two appearance features: 1. primary colors of clothes in the head, body and legs region. 2. presence of text/logo on the clothes. The annotation occurs after a robust foreground extraction based on a modified approach to Gaussian Mixture model and detection of human from segmented foreground images. The proposed pipeline consists of a preprocessing stage where we improve color quality of images using a basic color constancy algorithm and further improve the results using a proposed post-processing method. The results show a significant improvement to the illumination of the video frames. In order to annotate color information for human clothes, we apply 3D Histogram analysis (with respect to Hue, Saturation and Value) on HSV converted image regions of human body parts along with extrema detection and thresholding to decide the dominant color of the region. In order to detect text/logo on the clothes as another feature to articulate humans, we begin with the extraction of connected components of enhanced horizontal, vertical and diagonal edges in the frames. These candidate regions are classified as text or non-text on the bases of their Local Energy based Shape Histogram (LESH) features combined with KL divergence as classification criteria. To detect humans, a novel technique has been proposed that uses a combination of Histogram of Oriented Gradients (HOG) and Contourlet transform based Local Binary Patterns (LBP) with Adaboost as classifier. Initial screening of foreground objects is performed by using HOG features. To further eliminate the false positives due to noise form background and improve results, we apply Contourlet-LBP feature extraction on the images. In the proposed method, we extract the LBP feature descriptor for Contourlet transformed high pass sub-images from vertical and diagonal directional bands. In the final stage, extracted Contourlet-LBP descriptors are applied to Adaboost for classification. The proposed frame work showed fairly fine performance when tested on a CCTV test dataset.

This paper describes different approaches for the face authentication from the features and classification abilities point of view. Authors compare two types of features - Histogram of Oriented Gradients (HOG) and Local Binary Patterns (LBP) including their combination. These parameters are classified using Multilayer Neural Network (MLNN) and Support Vector Machines (SVM). Face authentication consists of several steps. The first step contains Viola-Jones algorithm for face detection. Authors resize the detected face for a fixed vector and afterwards, it is converted into grayscale. Next, feature extraction with a simple Min-Max normalization is applied. Obtained parameters are evaluated by classifiers and for each detected face, authors get posterior probability as the output of the classifier. Different approaches for face authentication are compared with each other using False Acceptance Rate (FAR), False Rejection Rate (FRR), Equal Error Rate (EER), Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) and Detection Error Tradeoff (DET) curves. The results are verified with AR Face Database and elaborated in a feature extraction and classifier design point of view. Best results were achieved by HOG feature for SVM classifier. Detailed results are listed in the text below.

Objectives: To present an automated computer vision-based traffic sign detection model created to identify roadside signs accurately in different environmental conditions. The goal is to improve detection accuracy using a lightweight architecture suitable for mobile devices. Methods: This study presents CV-TSD model. The technique integrates Histogram of Oriented Gradients (HoG), Local Binary Pattern (LBP), and TensorFlow-based machine learning for image recognition. Traffic sign datasets are collected from various online fora, annotated, and trained using convolutional neural networks. The proposed system uses Histogram of Oriented Gradients (HoG), Local Binary Pattern (LBP), and deep learning with TensorFlow for effective image classification. A custom dataset of traffic sign images was collected from several online sources, manually labelled, and used to retrain a convolutional neural network using transfer learning. Three environmental categories—dark shade, cloudy, and rainy—were used to test classification robustness. We assessed performance with training accuracy, validation accuracy, and cross-entropy loss. Findings: Experimental results show that CV-TSD consistently outperforms traditional HoG and LBP methods across all metrics. The system achieves a maximum training accuracy of 98% and a validation accuracy of 97% with a limited number of image samples. Furthermore, the model keeps stable cross-entropy values, indicating effective learning without overfitting. The lightweight design allows reliable performance even with smaller datasets, making it ideal for mobile and intelligent transportation systems. Novelty: Unlike standard traffic sign detection methods, CV-TSD mimics human visual perception by merging semantic image understanding with deep learning. Its ability to classify accurately with minimal data and low computational demands marks a significant advancement for real-time applications. Keywords: Traffic Sign Detection, Deep Learning, Image Classification, TensorFlow, HoG, LBP, Transfer Learning

Although face recognition systems have wide application, they are vulnerable to presentation attack samples (fake samples). Therefore, a presentation attack detection (PAD) method is required to enhance the security level of face recognition systems. Most of the previously proposed PAD methods for face recognition systems have focused on using handcrafted image features, which are designed by expert knowledge of designers, such as Gabor filter, local binary pattern (LBP), local ternary pattern (LTP), and histogram of oriented gradients (HOG). As a result, the extracted features reflect limited aspects of the problem, yielding a detection accuracy that is low and varies with the characteristics of presentation attack face images. The deep learning method has been developed in the computer vision research community, which is proven to be suitable for automatically training a feature extractor that can be used to enhance the ability of handcrafted features. To overcome the limitations of previously proposed PAD methods, we propose a new PAD method that uses a combination of deep and handcrafted features extracted from the images by visible-light camera sensor. Our proposed method uses the convolutional neural network (CNN) method to extract deep image features and the multi-level local binary pattern (MLBP) method to extract skin detail features from face images to discriminate the real and presentation attack face images. By combining the two types of image features, we form a new type of image features, called hybrid features, which has stronger discrimination ability than single image features. Finally, we use the support vector machine (SVM) method to classify the image features into real or presentation attack class. Our experimental results indicate that our proposed method outperforms previous PAD methods by yielding the smallest error rates on the same image databases.

The Local Binary Pattern (LBP) and its variants are capable of extracting image texture and have been successfully applied to classification. However, LBP has not been used to extract and describe the texture of polarized images, and simple LBP cannot characterize the polarized texture information from different polarizations of angles. In order to solve these problems, we propose a new multi-angle orthogonal difference polarization image texture descriptor (MODP_ITD) by analyzing the relationship between the difference of orthogonal difference polarization images from different angles and the pixel intensity distribution in the local neighborhood of images from different angles. The MODP_ITD consists of three patterns: multi-angle polarization orthogonal difference local binary pattern (MODP_LBP), multi-angle polarization orthogonal difference local sampling point principal component sequence pattern (MODP_LPCSP) and multi-angle orthogonal difference polarization local difference binary pattern (MODP_LDBP). The MODP_LBP extracts local corresponding texture characteristics of polarized orthogonal difference images from multiple angles. The MODP_LPCSP sorts the principal component order of each angle orthogonal difference local sampling point. The MODP LDBP extracts the local difference characteristics between different angles by constructing a new polarized image. Then, the frequency histograms of MODP_LBP, MOD_LPCSP ,and MODP_LDBP are cascaded to generate MODP_ITD, so as to distinguish local neighborhoods. By using vertical and parallel polarization and unpolarized light active illumination, combined with the measurements at three different detection zenith angles, we constructed a polarization texture image database. A substantial number of experimental results on the self-built database show that our proposed MODP_ITD can represent the detailed information of polarization images texture. In addition, compared with the existing LBP methods, The MODP_ITD has a competitive advantage in classification accuracy.

Palm tree detection using remote sensing images has received increasing attention in recent years, concerning the issues of sustainability, productivity and profitability. There has been significant progress in the research of using machine learning techniques, especially convolutional neural networks (CNNs) for automatic palm tree detection. However, whether CNNs can actually outperform traditional human-engineered approaches in terms of classification accuracy and detection speed is yet unknown. In the present study, we have compared human-engineered features namely histogram of oriented gradients (HOG), local binary pattern (LBP) and scale-invariant feature transform (SIFT) with features extracted using pre-trained AlexNet model for detecting palm trees in high resolution images obtained via unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). Support vector machines (SVM) with linear and non-linear kernels were used to classify feature vectors obtained by different feature extractors. Haar-like features used in Viola-Jones framework was also tested in the study. Results showed that features extracted from the fifth convolutional layer of AlexNet achieved the highest accuracy of 96.1% using SVM with RBF kernel as classifier, which surpassed the accuracy obtained by fully-connected CNN, namely 95.6%. The results also suggest that SVM classifier with radial basis function (RBF) kernel using LBP as features is the optimal combination as it achieved comparable accuracy but higher detection speed than CNN approaches.

In this paper a novel approach based on multiple color channels is proposed for multi-class fruit detection. Multi-feature fusion of global color histogram, Local Binary Pattern (LBP), Histogram of Oriented Gradient (HOG), and LBP based on Gabor wavelets (GaborLBP) is utilized to improve fruit recognition. These four features are extracted on multiple color channels. To select the optimal features of HOG, LBP and GaborLBP in each color channel, the optimal block is selected according to the cross validation accuracy. The optimal color channel fusion is optimized by a simple optimal color channel selection framework proposed in this paper. A multi-class fruit classifier is trained using the optimal color channel fusion and LibSVM. Besides, the proposed method is evaluated on a fruit dataset including 5 classes of fruit and 1778 test images. The experiments show that the proposed multi-class fruit detection method is effective. This proposed method has produced 0.156 miss rate at 0.5427 false positives per image (FPPI) and high average precision (0.8135), and can detect multi-class and multiple fruits in a variety of backgrounds, locations, angles, and sizes.

In today's world with the increase in pollution and other lifestyle changes of people, many individuals are prone to various cancer types. Out of these many cancer types Skin Cancer is the most common. Skin cancer is of two types i.e., benign and malignant. Timely detection of the skin cancer may lead to proper treatment and thus reduce the cost of treatment and hence reduces the damage to the skin-saving patients' life. For detecting skin cancer with high accuracy and very fast compared to the traditional methods this paper proposed the method of using texture-based features descriptors such as Local Binary Pattern (LBP) and Histogram of Oriented Gradient (HOG). This research proposed the method of detecting skin cancer type from the RGB image of the target area of skin cancer. The proposed method used texture features of the image to detect skin cancer with help of LBP and HOG texture feature descriptors. Further Logistic Regression (LR) is applied for classifying whether skin cancer is benign or malignant. The results are very efficient as the accuracy achieved by utilizing LBP and HOG of RGB image data is 99.394%. A total of 3600 RGB Images have been used for such a study. The experimental analysis results obtained are compared with other techniques like Random Forest Classifier, Ada Boost Classifiers, and Logistic Regression and it is found that the proposed approach outperforms available algorithms.