An overview of the ocean data ecosystem

The cycling of major biogenic elements-carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur-structures diversified life in the world. Marine ecosystems, occupying 71% of the earth's surface, contribute substantially to the element cycling. Phytoplankton, zooplankton, and microorganisms are the main forces to drive major biogenic element cycling in this ecosystem. In the Anthropocene, global warming, atmospheric sedimentation, eutrophication, ocean acidification, and hypoxia have caused many changes in the cycling. It is therefore of high interest to take a comprehensive look of these changes. This research topic aimed to explore groundbreaking studies about the cycling of biogenic elements and their microbial transformations in marine ecosystems , offering insights into the complex interactions between microbial communities, carbon sequestration, and the biogeochemical processes that shape our oceans. In the special topic setup phase, we focused on 1) the impacts of global climate changes on spatiotemporal distribution patterns, migration and transformation processes of marine biogenic elements, 2) the role of microorganism on the biogenic elements' transformations in marine ecosystem, 3) the responses of microbial community to global changes in marine ecosystem, and 4) the interactions between biogenic elements and microorganism facing global climate changes, which can be efficiently interfaced to the cycling of biogenic elements and their microbial transformations in marine ecosystems.The cycling of biogenic elements and their microbial transformations in marine ecosystems In the marine ecosystem, almost all the energy source ultimately comes from phytoplankton, which is called photosynthesis. Chen et al. (2023) explored the post-transcriptional regulatory mechanism of selective RNA processing and stabilization (SRPS) in Synechococcus sp. PCC7002. In this study, researchers found that inactivation of SRPS-enzymes significantly influences photosynthesis by affecting growth rate, pigment content, and the expression of key protein complex subunits involved in photosynthesis. The second study Wang et al. (2024b) We appreciate the innovative use of artificial intelligence in addressing the data scarcity challenge in marine DMS observations. Given the importance of microbes, our research topic also contained their spatiotemporal distribution patterns. Weingarten et al. (2023) described the microbial diversity along an estuarine salinity gradient in the Mobile Bay estuary.They discovered that vegetation type, soil horizon, and salinity strongly influence microbial-soil relationships, with forested wetlands displaying distinct microbial biomes compared to other wetland types. Wang et al. (2024a) uncovered the ecological stoichiometry of invertebrates in the Beibu Gulf, revealing significant interspecific differences in their elemental composition and the influence of body size and food sources on these traits, highlighting the role of invertebrates in the biogeochemical cycling of nutrients and the potential impacts of environmental changes on their growth and homeostasis.The health of our oceans and its carbon sink function are the frontiers of marine We thank all researchers who contributed and paid attention to this research topic.The collection of this research underscores the importance of cycling biogenic elements in constructing the marine ecosystem, as well as their biogeochemical transformations. However, further research is needed to address: 1) the multi-level responses of biogenic element cycling to global changes and anthropogenic disturbances, spanning from molecular to ecosystem scales; 2) long-term, continuous monitoring of biogenic element cycling in representative regions; 3) systemic biogeochemical processes in biogenic element cycling; 4) evaluation criteria for marine carbon sinks integrated with model forecasting; and 5) multiomics and multidisciplinary approaches in the age of artificial intelligence (AI). All of the above are the innovative research being conducted in the field and serve as a foundation for future studies aimed at unraveling the mysteries of our oceans.

The ocean is rapidly changing through warming, sea-level rise, ocean acidification, declining oxygen concentrations, and altered circulation patterns, which are reshaping marine ecosystems worldwide. These changes necessitate a complete and holistic view of affected marine ecosystems. Long-term ocean monitoring programs are crucial for understanding these changes and guiding sustainable management. The California Cooperative Oceanic Fisheries Investigations (CalCOFI)*1, initiated in 1949, is one of the world's longest-running and most comprehensive marine ecosystem observing programs. CalCOFI collects extensive ocean data across all Essential Ocean Variables in the Southern California Current four times a year (Gallo et al. 2022). This encompasses over 36 physical and chemical parameters, 2,500 biological parameters, and 50,000 environmental DNA sequences, measured simultaneously (Satterthwaite et al. 2025). These data have illuminated long-term ecosystem patterns, supported marine management, and enhanced our understanding of how climate variability and change impact the California Current. Given its long history and collaborative nature, CalCOFI's data are fragmented across more than 30 disparate datasets, managed by different entities, served in various locations, with inconsistent naming and limited integration (Fig. 1), which hinders a holistic ecosystem understanding. Thus, CalCOFI exemplifies similar challenges and opportunities of mobilizing and integrating ocean data on a global scale. Our vision has been to modernize and build an integrated data system for CalCOFI that automates dataset ingestion, integration, and serving for timely use in research and management (Fig. 1). We are developing workflows to publish these datasets into portals promoting Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, and Reusable (FAIR; Wilkinson et al. 2016) data principles. Our initial efforts focused on two core CalCOFI datasets: Conductivity, Temperature, and Depth (CTD) bottle data and larval fish data to develop a workflow for easier access, integration, and use (Fig. 2). Data providers upload processed datasets into a shared Google Drive in simple formats (e.g., .csv), with globally unique identifiers and standardized naming conventions (Suppl. material 1). Data are automatically detected and integrated into a PostgreSQL database (Fig. 2). Newly added data trigger a system rebuild and validation, checking primary keys, spatial geometry, taxonomy, and metadata. Managers are notified of errors; otherwise, the system updates production databases, records a new version, and publishes a Github release with source files and a DOI via Zenodo. Original source data files are retained for past version reconstruction. While PostgreSQL maintains relationships between data, we also produce an analytical database in DuckDB for a single, portable database with fast querying, even on remote servers (Fig. 2). CalCOFI data and observations are accessible through multiple repositories and platforms, tools, interfaces, and portals based on user needs and funder requirements (Fig. 2; Suppl. material 1). For example, some tools support flexible analysis and visualization (e.g., NOAA Environmental Research Division's Data Access Program), others provide long-term archiving with standardized metadata (e.g., Environmental Data Initiative). We are also publishing biological observations in DarwinCore (Wieczorek et al. 2012) format with Extended Measurement or Fact and uploading them to the Ocean Biodiversity Information System (OBIS) so that CalCOFI data can be integrated with global biodiversity datasets worldwide. CalCOFI program information is on the Global Ocean Observing System Biology & Ecosystem Portal, and dataset records are structured for indexing by portals like Ocean Data Information System (ODIS) and Google Dataset Search. To facilitate data access and visualization, we also developed the CalCOFI Integrated Data Viewer*2 (Fig. 3). This web app allows users to explore decades of CalCOFI oceanographic and larval fish data across space, time, and depth. We plan to integrate additional CalCOFI datasets and collaborate with other data providers to build a more complete ecosystem-level view of the California Current. Our ultimate goal is to enhance CalCOFI data findability, integration, and usability for scientific and management communities, enabling a better understanding of ocean changes and ensuring a sustainable future for marine ecosystems and human communities.

IntroductionCoastal nations heavily rely on their sea areas to achieve sustainable socioeconomic development. Sea areas offer abundant marine ecosystem products and services that are difficult to substitute with industrial goods. Although considerable research has been performed to evaluate the contribution offrom the marine ecosystems to human well-being, systematic and measurable indices are lacking.MethodsTo address this knowledge gap, ecosystem service theory was used to establish a framework for assessing the gross ecosystem product (GEP) of a sea area, which represents the total monetary value of final ecosystem products directly and indirectly used by people within a specific administrative jurisdiction in one year. To evaluate marine GEP, three primary indices, i.e., material products, regulating products, and cultural products, were employed, and they consist of eight secondary indices. Material products in the sea area include aquatic products and oxygen products; regulating products include carbon sequestration, climate regulation, waste treatment, and coastal protection; and cultural products include leisure and recreation, and seascape-added value. The marine GEP was calculated for the administrative sea areas of Changdao County, which is located in the Yellow Sea-Bohai Sea transitional zone.Results and discussionOur analysis indicated that from 2017 to 2019, the marine GEP in Changdao ranged between 32.59 and 33.35 billion Chinese yuan (CNY). Regulating products contributed two-thirds of this total value. However, over the three-year period, the marine GEP underwent a 5.64% decrease in Changdao. Specifically, the value of material products increased by 38.85% while that of regulating and cultural products decreased by 9.16% and 15.87%, respectively. Notably, the spatial distribution of ecosystem product values in Changdao displayed two prominent trends: (1) higher values along the coastal sea areas of islands and lower values in offshore sea areas; and (2) higher values in coastal areas of southern islands and lower values in coastal areas of northern islands. Marine GEP may serve as a comprehensive indicator for assessing the sustainability of marine ecosystem. Combining the assessment of both marine and terrestrial GEP facilitates an understanding of how marine and terrestrial ecosystems interact in coastal regions. Furthermore, the combined use of marine GEP and GDP helps better evaluate and sort the level of green development of coastal nations and regions.

PDF HTML阅读 XML下载 导出引用 引用提醒 海洋生态资本理论框架下的生态系统服务评估 DOI: 10.5846/stxb201306031301 作者: 作者单位: 国家海洋局第一海洋研究所,青岛,中国海洋大学经济学院,国家海洋局第一海洋研究所,青岛,中国海洋大学经济学院,中国海洋大学生命学院 青岛,中国海洋大学经济学院,山东省海水养殖研究所,国家海洋局第一海洋研究所,青岛 作者简介: 通讯作者: 中图分类号: 基金项目: 国家自然科学基金项目(31072211);国家海洋局公益行业专项(201105006);山东省科技厅项目(2007GG10005012);国家海洋局908项目(908-02-04-03);山东海洋与渔业厅908项目(SD-908-02-10);福建海洋与渔业厅908项目(FJ908-02-02-07) Marine ecological capital：valuation methods of marine ecosystem services Author: Affiliation: The First Institute of Oceanography,SOA,Qingdao,School of Economics,Ocean University of China,Qingdao,The First Institute of Oceanography,SOA,Qingdao,School of Economics,Ocean University of China,Qingdao,School of Marine Life,Ocean University of China,Qingdao,School of Economics,Ocean University of China,Qingdao,,The First Institute of Oceanography,SOA,Qingdao Fund Project: 摘要 | 图/表 | 访问统计 | 参考文献 | 相似文献 | 引证文献 | 资源附件 | 文章评论 摘要:海洋生态资本指能够直接或间接作用于人类社会经济生产、提供有用的产品流或服务流的海洋生态资源。海洋生态资本价值由海洋生态资源存量价值和海洋生态系统服务价值组成。海洋生态资本评估包括海洋生态资源存量评估和海洋生态系统服务评估。在海洋生态资本理论框架体系下,针对我国近海生态系统服务的开发与利用情况,建立了评估海洋生态系统服务的物质量和价值量的技术框架。基于物质量可量化、价值量可货币化、数据可获得性三条评估原则,筛选出9个指标定量评估海洋生态系统服务的物质量和价值量,并给出了对应的评估方法、计算公式、参数和数据来源。海洋供给服务采用养殖生产、捕捞生产和氧气生产3个指标评估;海洋供给服务采用气候调节、废弃物处理2个指标评估;海洋文化服务采用休闲娱乐、科研服务2个指标评估;海洋支持服务采用物种多样性维持、生态系统多样性维持2个指标评估。养殖生产、捕捞生产等指标采用市场价格法进行评估;氧气生产、废弃物处理、科研服务等指标采用替代成本法进行评估;气候调节指标采用替代市场价格法进行评估;休闲娱乐指标采用旅行费用法或收入替代法进行评估;物种多样性维持、生态系统多样性维持等指标采用条件价值法进行评估。该套方法体系已经应用于山东省7个沿海地级市和福建省东山湾、罗源湾的近海生态系统服务价值评估,已经得到学术界和海洋管理部门的认可,被国家标准《海洋生态资本评估技术导则》吸收采用。该套方法紧密切合国家生态文明建设需求,可为海洋主管部门的生态资本核算、生态补偿业务、环评审批提供关键技术手段,也为海洋生态系统服务的精确评估提供了科学基础。 Abstract:Marine ecological capital is defined as marine ecological resources which are able to have direct or indirect positive influences in human’s social and economic production and provide benefits for human. Marine ecological capital value consists of the existing value of marine ecological resources, as well as the marine ecosystem service value. The assessment of marine ecological capital includes marine ecological resources and marine ecosystem services. Marine ecosystem services consist of four groups of services (i.e. provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting services) and 16 subgroups of services. Provisioning services consist of maricultral production, fishing production, oxygen production, raw material production, and genetic resources supply; Regulating services consist of climate regulation, waste treatment, biological control, and disturbance regulation; Cultural services consist of recreational service, cultural usage, and scientific service; Supporting services consist of primary production, nutrients cycling, species diversity maintenance, and ecosystem diversity maintenance.Considering the utilization patterns of ecosystem services in China coastal waters, this paper developed the assessment methods of marine ecosystem services in both mass and monetary under the marine ecological capital frameworks. We selected 9 services among the above 16 services to be valued and summed up as the total value of ecosystem services. Moreover for each service, its evaluation methods, calculation formulas, parameters and data resources are given too. Maricultural, fishing, and oxygen productions are selected to assess provisioning services. Climate regulation and waste treatment are selected to assess regulating services. Recreational and scientific services are chosen to assess cultural services. Species and ecosystem diversity maintenances are chosen to assess supporting services. The market-price method is recommended to valuate maricultural and fishing productions. The replaced-cost method is recommended to valuate oxygen production, waste treatment, and scientific service. The replaced-market-price method is recommended to valuate climate regulation. The travel-cost method and replaced-income method are recommended to valuate recreational service. The contingent-value method is recommended to valuate species and ecosystem diversity maintenances.Currently, the services including raw material, cultural usage, biological control, and disturbance regulation services from marine ecosystems were excluded from the calculation monetary value of marine ecosystem services, because it is difficult to access the statistical data for assessment; also it is unclear to how to valuate cultural usage and genetic resources supply provided from marine ecosystem. Primary production provides energy and carbon, while nutrients cycling provide nitrogen, phosphorous and silicate, to support the smooth run of marine ecosystem. However human being does not directly or indirectly use primary production, nutrients cycling from sea. Moreover the benefits human get from these two services have been calculated during calculating the other services (i.e. maricultural, fishing and raw material production, waste treatment). Therefore, primary production and nutrients cycling should not be evaluated in monetary term, but they may be evaluated in mass term. This set of assessment methods of marine ecosystem services has been applied to evaluate the ecosystem services of Shandong provincial coastal waters located in Yellow Sea and of Dongshan and Luoyuan bays located in East China Sea. These assessment methods have been adopted by China's "Technical Directives for Marine Ecological Capital Assessment" after passing review of several expert committees. This set of methods provide an applicable technical tool to enforce the policies for ecological capital accounting, compensation against ecological damage accidents, payment for ecosystem services of marine protected areas, and marine and fisheries management effectiveness assessment. 参考文献 相似文献 引证文献

Sustained ocean time series are critical for characterizing marine ecosystem shifts in a time of accelerating, and at times unpredictable, changes. They represent the only means to distinguish between natural and anthropogenic forcings, and are the best tools to explore causal links and implications for human communities that depend on ocean resources. Since the inception of sustained ocean observations, ocean time series have withstood many challenges, most prominently availability of uninterrupted funding and retention of trained personnel. This OceanObs’19 review article provides an overarching vision for sustained ocean time series observations for the next decade, focusing on the growing challenges of maintaining sustained ocean time series, including ship-based and autonomous coastal and open-ocean platforms, as well as remote sensing. In addition to increased diversification of funding sources to include the private sector, NGOs, and other groups, more effective engagement of stakeholders and other end-users will be critical to ensure the sustainability of ocean time series programs. Building a cohesive international time series network will require dedicated capacity to coordinate across observing programs and leverage existing infrastructure and platforms of opportunity. This review article outlines near-term observing priorities and technology needs; explores potential mechanisms to broaden ocean time series data applications and end-user communities; and describes current tools and future requirements for managing increasingly complex multi-platform data streams and developing synthesis products that support science and society. The actionable ecommendations outlined herein ultimately form the basis for a robust, sustainable, fit-for-purpose time series network that will foster a predictive understanding of changing ocean systems for the benefit of society.

This paper delves into the intricate relationship between anthropogenic CO2 emissions and the consequent changes in ocean pH levels, which is known as ocean acidification. The study highlights the broader implications for marine ecosystems, particularly calcifying organisms such as corals and mollusks, which are highly sensitive to changes in ocean chemistry. The research establishes that ocean acidification is a direct consequence of increased levels of atmospheric CO2, and if CO2 emissions persist at the current rate, the rate of ocean acidification is expected to accelerate throughout this century. The paper analyzes the impact of ocean acidification on marine ecosystems, including the potential economic consequences for fishing communities that rely on these ecosystems for their livelihoods. The authors emphasize the urgent need for comprehensive research, informed policymaking, and global cooperation to address this critical issue. They argue that mitigative and adaptive strategies are necessary to protect marine ecosystems and the services they provide, such as food security, climate regulation, and cultural values. In conclusion, this paper highlights the urgent need to recognize the intrinsic link between the health of our oceans and the health of our planet. The authors call for a coordinated effort to reduce CO2 emissions and to develop innovative solutions to mitigate the negative effects of ocean acidification on marine ecosystems.

Regime shifts in the thermal dynamics of offshore China due to accelerated global warming

We present a data visualization approach that allows users to interactively analyse sequential movement patterns and automatically extract rules for marine animal behaviour. This enhances the ability of oceanic experts to understand marine ecosystems. Traditional time-series analysis, basic statistical methods, and single-view visualizations often fail to capture the intricate spatial and temporal dynamics of marine ecosystems. Our visual analytics approach, that leverages sequential pattern mining and rule mining techniques, integrates SPMF's Vertical Mining of Maximal Sequential Patterns (VMSP) algorithm and T-Rule Growth algorithm to efficiently extract and visualize movement patterns and behavioural rules of marine animals. The system also incorporates automated pre-processing to clean and prepare large datasets, reducing the time and effort required for manual handling. The visualization presents oceanic data from detection stations, allowing researchers to discover patterns in the movements of marine species. Our interface also provides geographical visualization of selected patterns or rules and helps users to navigate and find the relevant information. Key principles of our model include multi-view visualizations that provide comprehensive insights by displaying data from various perspectives simultaneously, and geo-spatial time-varying data visualization that captures and represents the dynamic movements of marine species. This approach allows domain experts to interactively explore and analyse sequential patterns and rules, enhancing their ability to make informed decisions. Additionally, feedback received, and insights gained from specialized professionals was used to determine if this approach would be a beneficial complement to existing practice.

Ocean observations are acquired from a great variety of platforms at different spatial and temporal scales. Additionally, a great number of physical, chemical, geological and biological variables need to be measured to characterise and understand ocean dynamics and the ocean ecosystem. Developing robust infrastructures that facilitate the search and access to diverse oceanographic data becomes essential to be able to use ocean observations for increasing our knowledge of ocean dynamics and of the ocean ecosystem and for producing information, services and products to support the great diversity of marine stakeholders.In this communication, we will present recent developments of data infrastructures and data services at the the Spanish Institute of Oceanography (IEO-CSIC) in the framework of different national and international funded projects (DEMON, Oceans+, iFADO, DATAMARE...). IEO was founded in 1914 and focuses its activity on oceanography and marine research for different marine stakeholders and to provide scientific advice to the government to support the implementation of marine related policies. IEO is part of the National Oceanographic Data Centres (NODC) network, which adhere to FAIR principles (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, and Reusable) to ensure standardized data management and global exchange of ocean data. In this contribution we will focus on our recent developments of standard catalogues using open-source tools like GeoNetwork and we will show how this approach has enabled IEO to organise and present a vast catalogue of oceanographic data and of data services that disseminate marine data sets following FAIR principles. Proper hierarchization ensure that users (individuals or data hubs) can navigate the IEO catalogue effectively, taking advantage of the search capabilities to access data for research and applications. Different examples of access to multidisciplinary data sets obtained with different ocean observing platforms will be provided. In addition, we will show how the ocean data stored at IEO can be catalogued to support the implementation of the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD).Finally, we will present the integrated marine data platform being developed by the EU funded Galician Marine Sciences Program by different academic and research actors in Galicia (CESGA, CSIC, MeteoGalicia, INTECMAR, CETMAR and universities of Santiago and Coruña) with the objective of demonstrating the improvement in the management of marine data using supercomputing technologies (High Performance Computing, HPC). We will show practical examples of how access and processing of multidisciplinary marine data sets can be performed in the infrastructure in a powerful, standardized, fast and simple way.

Effective ocean and coastal data management are needed to manage marine ecosystem health. Past ocean and coastal data management systems were often very specific to a particular application and region, but this focused approach often lacks real-time data and sharing/interoperating capability. The challenge for the ocean observing community is to devise standards and practices that enable integration of data from sensors across devices, manufacturers, users, and domains to enable new types of applications and services that facilitate much more comprehensive understanding and analyses of marine ecosystem. A given kind of sensor may be deployed on various platforms such as floats, gliders or moorings, and thus must be integrated with different operation, and data management systems. Simplifying the integration process in existing or newly established observing systems would benefit system operators and is important for the broader application of diverse sensors. This paper describes a geospatial “sensor web” architecture developed by the “NeXOS” project for ocean and coastal data management, based on the concepts of spatial data infrastructure and the Sensor Web Enablement framework of the Open Geospatial Consortium. This approach reduces the effort to propagate data from deployed sensors to users. To support the realization of the proposed Next generation Ocean Sensors (NeXOS) architecture, hardware and software specifications for a Smart Electronic Interface for Sensors and Instruments (SEISI) are described. SEISI specifies small lower-power electronics, minimal operating system, and standards-basedresearch software to enable web-based sharing, discovery, exchange, and processing of sensor observations as well as operation of sensor devices. An experimental scenario is presented in which sensor data from a low-power glider with low-bandwidth intermittent satellite communications is integrated into the geospatial sensor web using the NeXOS architecture.

Great expectations and concerns surround health data ecosystems, yet empirical research on their impacts is only beginning to emerge. Building on Responsible Innovation (RI) and valuation studies, we ask: what functions are values made to fulfill in anticipatory practices shaping the development of a health data ecosystem, and with what implications? We examine IDEA4RC, a Horizon Europe-funded project developing a rare cancer data ecosystem, where we deployed a co-creation framework. We thematically analyzed data from interviews, a co-creation workshop, participant observations, surveys, and documents. We show that, in early development, values were mobilized in three interconnected ways: as requirements that narrowed and legitimized developmental pathways; as guides that broadened anticipated impacts; and as mediators sustaining multi-stakeholder collaboration. We thus demonstrate how values dynamically shape anticipatory practices and transform rapidly over short timeframes, while extending RI to the ecosystem level by highlighting how power and authority influence values' articulation and mobilization.

Aquatic life and ecosystems represent some of the most dynamic and biologically diverse components of the biosphere. It is vital in global biogeochemical cycles, food security, climate regulation, and ecosystem services. This review provides a comprehensive synthesis of current knowledge and emerging research areas in studying aquatic life and ecosystems for freshwater and marine environments. This paper uses a chronological approach to explore the research development in the past, present, and future. We traced the research advances in structural and functional diversity of aquatic organisms, from microbial communities to higher trophic levels, and examined the intricate ecological interactions underpinning ecosystem stability and productivity. We grasped key topics to reflect research progress and advancement in habitat degradation, pollution, climate change, and biological invasions, particularly aquatic biodiversity and ecological integrity. In the new century, scientists have applied genomic tools for ecological management and microbiome research to enhance our understanding of aquatic systems at the molecular level and explore underlying mechanisms. Applied research has emphasized conservation and management, including ecosystem-based management, aquaculture, and fisheries. By critically analyzing past developments and current knowledge gaps, this review paper provides readers with future research priorities and sustainable management of aquatic life and ecosystems in an era of rapid environmental change.

The biological productivity and diversity of the California Current System (CCS) is at the leading edge of major emerging climate trends, including hypoxia and acidification. We present results from a hindcast simulation (reanalysis) of an eddy-resolving oceanic physical-biogeochemical model of the CCS, to characterize its mean state and its patterns and drivers of variability in marine biogeochemical and ecosystem processes from 1995 to 2010. This is a companion paper to a physical analysis in Renault et al. (2021). The model reproduces long-term mean distributions of key ecosystem metrics, including surface nutrients and productivity and subsurface O2 and carbonate undersaturation. The spatial patterns of Net Primary Productivity (NPP) are broadly consistent with measured and remotely sensed rates, and they reflect a predominant limitation by nitrogen, with seasonal and episodic limitation by Fe nearshore in the central CCS, and in the open ocean northern CCS. The vertical distribution of NPP is governed by the trade-off between nutrient and light limitation, a balance that reproduces and explains the observed spatial variations in the depth of the deep Chl maximum. The seasonal to interannual variability of biogeochemical properties and rates is also well captured by model simulations. Because of the prevailing nutrient limitation, fluctuations in the depth of the pycnocline and associated nutricline are the leading single factor explaining interannual variability in the interior biogeochemical state, and the relationships between density and biogeochemical rates and tracers are consistent between model and observations. The magnitude and relationship between density structure and biogeochemical processes is illustrated by the 1997–98 El Niño event, which faithfully reproduces the single largest deviation from the mean state in the simulated period. A slower decadal shoaling of the pycnocline also accounts for the concomitant trends in hypoxic and corrosive conditions on the shelf. The resulting variability is key to understanding the vulnerability of marine species to oceanic change, and to the detection of such changes, soon projected to exceed the range of conditions in the past century.

Marine ecosystems encompass around 70% of the earth's surface and contribute significantly to human well-being by giving social, economic, and environmental advantages to the world's growing population. Marine ecosystems provide a variety of different services that are crucial for human well-being, in addition to being a major source of food, income, and employment. Coastal protection, marine biodiversity, and carbon sequestration are among them. Human activities, on the other hand, place diverse stresses on marine ecosystems, which are predicted to increase, resulting in cumulative impacts on marine ecosystems and biodiversity. As a result, significant efforts have been made around the world to create marine protected areas (MPAs) in order to safeguard and preserve biodiversity, as well as natural and cultural resources. They're usually made by designating zones and prescribing permissible and prohibited activities within those zones. MPAs include the Open Ocean, coastal areas, intertidal zones, and estuaries, among other habitats. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which established the worldwide framework for marine governance in 1982, obligated all governments to protect and conserve the marine environment. In 2000, MPAs covered 0.7% of the Ocean; since then, MPA coverage has increased by more than tenfold to 7.68%. The MPA network will need to be ecologically representative, equitably and efficiently maintained, and of particular importance for ecosystem services in order to meet the aim.

Oceans and seas represent over 70% of the earth's surface. Furthermore, living aquatic resources can provide a significant contribution to food, energy and bio-based products. However, marine ecosystems are subject to increasing pressures and competing usages, resulting from resources over-exploitation and pollution. In order to produce efficient marine management plans, it is essential to consider the total economic value provided by the marine ecosystems. In this review, we are focusing on the Marine Framework Strategy Directive and the European Marine Spatial Planning that are established for the protection and efficient use of the marine area. We present the ecosystem services approach with regards to the marine ecosystem and propose economic methods that capture the marine ecosystem’s total economic value in relation to the opportunity cost of marine space. Values should be used to guide policy makers following the European directives and initiatives.