Analysis of growth components in Allium roots

ABSTRACTThe Arabidopsis thaliana (hereafter Arabidopsis) root has become a useful model for studying how organ morphogenesis emerge from the coordination and balance of cell proliferation and differentiation, as both processes may be observed and quantified in the root at different stages of development. Hence, being able to objectively identify and delimit the different stages of root development has been very important. Up to now, three different zones along the longitudinal axis of the primary root of Arabidopsis, have been identified: the root apical meristematic zone (RAM) with two domains [the proliferative (PD) and the transition domain (TD)], the elongation zone (EZ) and the maturation zone (MZ). We previously reported a method to quantify the length of the cells of the meristematic and the elongation zone, as well as the boundaries or transitions between the root domains along the growing part of the Arabidopsis root. In this study, we provide a more accurate criterion to identify the MZ. Traditionally, the transition between the EZ to the MZ has been established by the emergence of the first root-hair bulge in the epidermis, because this emergence coincides with cell maturation in this cell type. But we have found here that after the emergence of the first root-hair bulge some cells continue to elongate and we have confirmed this in three different Arabidopsis ecotypes. We established the limit between the EZ and the MZ by looking for the closest cortical cell with a longer length than the average cell length of 10 cells after the cortical cell closest to the epidermal cell with the first root-hair bulge in these three ecotypes. In Col-0 and Ws this cell is four cells above the one with the root hair bulge and, in the Ler ecotype, this cell is five cells above. To unambiguously identifying the site at which cells stop elongating and attain their final length and fate at the MZ, we propose to calculate the length of completely elongated cortical cells counting 10 cells starting from the sixth cell above the cortical cell closest to the epidermal cell with the first root-hair bulge. We validated this proposal in the three ecotypes analyzed and consider that this proposal may aid at having a more objective way to characterize root phenotypes and compare among them.

Towards plant systems biology – novel mathematical approaches to enable quantitative analysis of growth processes

Identification and expression profiles of putative leaf growth related microRNAs in maize (Zea mays L.) hybrid ADA313

The cultivation of resistant rootstocks is one of the more effective ways to mitigate apple replant disease (ARD). We performed an ion current test, a pot experiment, and a pathogen infection test on the apple rootstocks 12-2 (self-named), T337, and M26. The ion current test showed that exposure to ARD soil extract for 30 min had a significant effect on K+ ion currents at the meristem, elongation, and mature zones of the M26 rhizoplane and on Ca2+ currents in the meristem and elongation zones. ARD also had a significant effect on Ca2+ currents in the meristem, elongation, and mature zones of the T337 rhizoplane. Exposure to ARD soil extract for 5 min had a significant effect on K+ currents in the meristem, elongation, and mature zones of 12-2 and on the Ca2+ currents in the elongation and mature zones. Compared to a 5-min exposure, a 30-min exposure to ARD extract had a less pronounced effect on K+ and Ca2+ currents in the 12-2 rhizoplane. The pot experiment showed that ARD soil had no significant effect on any root architectural or physiological parameters of 12-2. By contrast, ARD soil significantly reduced some root growth indices and the dry and fresh weights of T337 and M26 compared with controls on sterilized soil. ARD also had a significant effect on root metabolic activity, root antioxidant enzyme activity (except superoxide dismutase for T337), and malondialdehyde content of T337 and M26. Pathogen infection tests showed that Fusarium proliferatum MR5 significantly affected the root structure and reduced the root metabolic activity of T337 and M26. It also reduced their root antioxidant enzyme activities (except catalase for T337) and significantly increased the root malondialdehyde content, reactive oxygen levels, and proline and soluble sugar contents. By contrast, MR5 had no such effects on 12-2. Based on these results, 12-2 has the potential to serve as an important ARD-resistant rootstock.

In angiosperms, growth of the root apex is determined by the quiescent centre. All tissues of the root proper and the root cap are derived from initial cells that surround this zone. The diversity of cell lineages originated from these initials suggests an interesting variation of the displacement velocity within the root apex. However, little is known about this variation, especially in the most apical region including the root cap. This paper shows a method of determination of velocity field for this region taking the Arabidopsis root apex as example. Assuming the symplastic growth without a rotation around the root axis, the method combines mathematical modelling and two types of empirical data: the published velocity profile along the root axis above the quiescent centre, and dimensions of cell packet originated from the initials of epidermis and lateral root cap. The velocities, calculated for points of the axial section, vary in length and direction. Their length increases with distance from the quiescent centre, in the root cap at least twice slower than in the root proper, if points at similar distance from the quiescent centre are compared. The vector orientation depends on the position of a calculation point, the widest range of angular changes, reaching almost 90°, in the lateral root cap. It is demonstrated how the velocity field is related to both distribution of growth rates and growth-resulted deformation of the cell wall system. Also changes in the field due to cell pattern asymmetry and differences in slope of the velocity profile are modelled.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00425-012-1707-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Spatiotemporal brassinosteroid signaling and antagonism with auxin pattern stem cell dynamics in Arabidopsis roots

Aluminum-Dependent Root-Growth Inhibition in Arabidopsis Results from AtATR-Regulated Cell-Cycle Arrest

Evaluating the impact of competition using relative growth rate in red pine ( Pinus resinosa Ait.) stands

Polyamines are involved in key developmental processes and stress responses. Copper amine oxidases oxidize the polyamine putrescine (Put), producing an aldehyde, ammonia, and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). The Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) amine oxidase gene At4g14940 (AtAO1) encodes an apoplastic copper amine oxidase expressed at the early stages of vascular tissue differentiation in roots. Here, its role in root development and xylem differentiation was explored by pharmacological and forward/reverse genetic approaches. Analysis of the AtAO1 expression pattern in roots by a promoter::green fluorescent protein-β-glucuronidase fusion revealed strong gene expression in the protoxylem at the transition, elongation, and maturation zones. Methyl jasmonate (MeJA) induced AtAO1 gene expression in vascular tissues, especially at the transition and elongation zones. Early protoxylem differentiation was observed upon MeJA treatment along with Put level decrease and H2O2 accumulation in wild-type roots, whereas Atao1 loss-of-function mutants were unresponsive to the hormone. The H2O2 scavenger N,N(1)-dimethylthiourea reversed the MeJA-induced early protoxylem differentiation in wild-type seedlings. Likewise, Put, which had no effect on Atao1 mutants, induced early protoxylem differentiation in the wild type, this event being counteracted by N,N(1)-dimethylthiourea treatment. Consistently, AtAO1-overexpressing plants showed lower Put levels and early protoxylem differentiation concurrent with H2O2 accumulation in the root zone where the first protoxylem cells with fully developed secondary wall thickenings are found. These results show that the H2O2 produced via AtAO1-driven Put oxidation plays a role in MeJA signaling leading to early protoxylem differentiation in root.

Understanding how plants respond to temperature is relevant for agriculture in a warming world. Responses to temperature in the shoot have been characterized more fully than those in the root. Previous work on thermomorphogenesis in roots established that for Arabidopsis thaliana (Columbia) seedlings grown continuously at a given temperature, the root meristem produces cells at the same rate at 15°C as at 25°C and the root's growth zone is the same length. To uncover the pathway(s) underlying this constancy, we screened 34 A. thaliana genotypes for parameters related to growth and division. No line failed to respond to temperature. Behavior was little affected by mutations in phytochrome or other genes that underly thermomorphogenesis in shoots. However, a mutant in cryptochrome 2 was disrupted substantially in both cell division and elongation, specifically at 15°C. Among the 34 lines, cell production rate varied extensively and was associated only weakly with root growth rate; in contrast, parameters relating to elongation were stable. Our data are consistent with models of root growth that invoke cell non-autonomous regulation for establishing boundaries between meristem, elongation zone and mature zone.

This work had the objective of analyzing the growth and agronomic behavior of sweet potato cultivars originated from conventionally or in vitro produced sprouts. The experimental design was a 5 × 2 full factorial in randomized complete blocks with four replicates. The treatments were five sweet potato cultivars (‘ESAM 1’, ‘ESAM 2’, ‘ESAM 3’, ‘Branca do Rio de Janeiro’ e ‘California’) and two propagation methods (conventional and in vitro). For the growth analysis, plant were collected at 40, 60, 80, 100 and 120 days after planting, from which was measured the plant dry mass, the tuberous root dry mass, and the leaf area. The following physiological indexes were calculated: absolute and relative growth rates, leaf area index and net assimilatory rate. A significant interaction among cultivars, propagation forms and evaluation time for all variables was observed. The highest values were obtained for the plants originated from in vitro culture. Cultivar ‘ESAM 2’ exhibited a higher plant dry mass, absolute growth rate and tuberous roots dry mass.

Tropical plants responses to elevated CO2 have been poorly studied compared to temperate plants, even though they are predicted to be more perceptible in a warmer climate. This paper investigates the effect of elevated atmospheric CO2 on the growth rate of Shorea platycarpa seedlings. Shorea platycarpa seedlings of 18 months old were grown for 28 weeks in the open roof chamber supplied with elevated CO2 concentration (800 ± 50 µmol mol−1) and in the greenhouse with ambient CO2 concentration (400 ± 50 µmol mol−1). Measurements of height and stem diameter growth, absolute and relative growth rates were made at frequent intervals (once a week) throughout the 28-week treatment. Elevated CO2 significantly advanced the growth of stem diameter. The height of S. platycarpa increased by 52% and 50% in the ambient and elevated CO2, respectively, whereas stem diameter increased by 131% and 146% in the ambient and elevated CO2, respectively. Absolute growth rate (AGR) and relative growth rate (RGR) of height and stem diameter showed that both were not significantly affected by elevated CO2. The RGR and AGR for both parameters in both ambient and elevated CO2 mostly fluctuated throughout the treatment, though only one or two weeks that strikingly higher than others. This result indicates that S. platycarpa growth was mostly influenced by the variation of individual growth performance in response to the elevated CO2.

Arabidopsis plants responding to phosphorus (P) deficiency increase lateral root formation and reduce primary root elongation. In addition the number and length of root hairs increases in response to P deficiency. Here we studied the patterns of radical oxygen species (ROS) in the roots of Arabidopsis seedlings cultured on media supplemented with high or low P concentration. We found that P availability affected ROS distribution in the apical part of roots. If plants were grown on high P medium, ROS were located in the root elongation zone and quiescent centre. At low P ROS were absent in the elongation zone, however, their synthesis was detected in the primary root meristem. The proximal part of roots was characterized by ROS production in the lateral root primordia and in elongation zones of young lateral roots irrespective of P concentration in the medium. On the other hand, plants grown at high or low P differed in the pattern of ROS distribution in older lateral roots. At high P, the elongation zone was the primary site of ROS production. At low P, ROS were not detected in the elongation zone. However, they were present in the proximal part of the lateral root meristem. These results suggest that P deficiency affects ROS distribution in distal parts of Arabidopsis roots. Under P-sufficiency ROS maximum was observed in the elongation zone, under low P, ROS were not synthesized in this segment of the root, however, they were detected in the apical root meristem.

Relative growth of the human fetal skull in width, length and height

Background: Tomato plants exposed to salinity stress may experience dynamic changes in root growth and cell wall (CW) composition and structure. Aims: Here, we determined the CW composition and cation-exchange capacity (CEC) of two tomato cultivars (Daniela, salt-tolerant and Naomi, salt-sensitive) as well as their growth and root characteristics. Methods: Seedlings of the tomato cultivars were exposed to six NaCl plus CaCl2 concentrations hydroponically, root growth and CW chemical composition were measured. Results: The root growth of Naomi was adversely (P ≤ 0.05) reduced at the elongation zone, but there was little change in the chemical composition of the CW under salinity. A marked reduction occurred in the CW-constituting polysaccharides of Naomi relative to Daniela, whether at the 8.00 dS m-1 NaCl treatment or its combination with CaCl2. For both root zones, CW viscosity was better enhanced under NaCl and CaCl2 combinations, but the contents of uronic acid across the CW constituents increased under sole treatment with CaCl2 at the mature root zone of Naomi. The root CW CEC increased (P ≤ 0.05) with increases in the ionic concentration of the external solution. Salt concentrations at 8.0 dS m-1 NaCl or 8.0 dS m-1 NaCl + CaCl2 increased (P ≤ 0.05) the CEC of the CW, especially for Daniela. Conclusions: The overall results showed that CaCl2 could enhance some tolerance in CW polysaccharides of tomato under salinity stress. The salt-tolerant Daniela with higher CW and ionic contents had superior stability in cell structure under salt stress.