Anthropology, Christian

Finding Ourselves after Darwin: Conversations on the Image of God, Original Sin, and the Problem of Evil

Logos: A Journal of Catholic Thought and Culture 6.4 (2003) 35-50 [Access article in PDF] St. Irenaeus and the Imago Dei The Importance of Being Human Thomas G. Weinandy THE WONDER AND AMAZEMENT that should accompany the astonishing biblical proclamation that human beings are created in the image and likeness of God is often absent today. Among contemporary Christians it may have too much the ring of fixed, and therefore thoughtless, familiarity. For many others it may be thought false in the light of the contemporary scientific understanding of what human beings are and how they historically evolved. Still others may think it utterly irrelevant to our practical secular lives. Irenaeus, an early father of the Christian church (c. 130-200A.D.), thought it neither false nor irrelevant, and, unlike many Christians today, he gloried in its realism. He was even convinced that it was at the heart of God's act of creation and so of his subsequent actions within salvation history. This essay, then, wishes to examine Irenaeus's understanding of what it means for us as human beings to be made in the imago Dei, in the image and likeness of God, and in so doing demonstrate its relevance for our contemporary daily lives. [End Page 15] A Uniquely Christian Idea To grasp the significance that God created human beings in his own image and likeness, a significance that was not lost on Irenaeus, it must first be noted that such a proposal did not originate from within some common universal human religious sentiment. Within classical paganism, it was the gods who were modeled after the image and likeness of men and women and, in so being depicted, they possessed all of the foibles, weaknesses, and vices that human beings possess. Such an anthropological conception of the gods did not enhance the dignity of human beings. Rather, it merely cheapened the dignity of the gods, and, in the end, exposed them to ridicule and mockery. The idea that human beings are icons of God did not originate from the bookish musings of some philosopher either. When ancient philosophers did consider the issue of man's nature, they inevitably concluded that what is divine in human beings, and so what makes them like god, is their soul or mind (logos or nous), that spiritual spark or seed that lies within humankind. While God may not be demeaned in such a view of man's nature, yet, as Irenaeus knew full well, man now is. There is something intimately tied to man, and, in a real sense makes him truly human, that is now evil in and of itself—the body. In the end it is only that which is not human that reflects the imago Dei, the spiritual divine spark or seed. This non-Christian teaching, as found in his contemporary Gnostics, prompted Irenaeus to undertake a thorough defense and examination of the truth that human beings were created in the image and likeness of God. While there were various schools of Gnosticism, one of the common threads within all its various formulations was that there is a conflict between the evil world of matter and the divine world of spirit. This conflict is primarily played out within human beings, for human beings (at least the spiritual elite) are composed of a spark of divine being and a material body. Salvific knowledge (gnosis) consisted in knowing how to extricate [End Page 16] one's true self—the divine spark—from the evil material body so as to obtain the freedom to make one's way back to the realm of the spiritual and the divine. Irenaeus found such anthropology contrary to the Christian faith and thus contrary to the dignity that human beings possess. In contrast to the Gnostics, Irenaeus delighted in the unparalleled and literally incredible thought that human beings, in the totality of who we are, body and soul, are images of God, and were created so by God himself. Moreover, he took pride in the...

Persons, Community, and the Image of God in Rawls’s Brief Inquiry

This study explores the depth of biblical and patristic concepts of the face and image of God, emphasizing their profound connection to human renewal and becoming like God through divine revelation. The analysis focuses on the interpretation of the terms "tselem" and "panim," which represent, respectively, the divine image in humans and the personal approach to God—an evolution involving inner transformation and participation in the life of the Trinity. It stresses that understanding this mystery requires going beyond external symbols and material forms to the heart of the Logos and the great mystery of love and communion revealed by Scripture. Drawing on the theological insights of the Church Fathers and contemporary theologians, it affirms that true likeness to God involves active, conscious participation in divine life through the grace of the Holy Spirit, as part of the process of spiritual "renewal." In this view, humans become an "imago Dei" in a real, not merely formal, sense and partake in the eternal light of the Most Holy Trinity, effectively becoming "temple of God." The study also explores the process of spiritual "transfiguration" described by patristic writings, which enables the soul and body to become eternal in Christ and continuous union with God. Through this theological perspective, it emphasizes that the image and face of God are not only symbols but living, participatory realities that reveal the ultimate destiny of human creation—returning to the divine origin in love and truth—until the fullness of the likeness of God is realized.

This article presents an interdisciplinary study of the ethical dimension of STEM education in the context of global technological transformations and the spiritual and moral crisis of contemporary society. The author draws attention to the problem of the dominance of an instrumental-utilitarian paradigm in the educational process of technical and natural science specialties, which fosters professionalization without humanization, and the development of a technocratic consciousness devoid of an internal moral compass. In light of this, the article raises the issue of the necessity for a holistic pedagogical approach that includes not only knowledge transmission but also the formation of spiritual and ethical competencies, existential responsibility, and the ability for self-reflection among future scientists. Based on Christian anthropology, the theology of personhood, the philosophy of the essential powers of the human being, and the principles of sustainable development, the author substantiates the original pedagogical methodology “Logos & Techne” as a tool for integrating spiritual values into technical education. The methodology is grounded in the biblical understanding of the human being as created in the image and likeness of God (Genesis 1:26–27), called not only to have dominion over creation but also to responsible service and co-creation with God. The proposed educational structure is aimed at developing not only professional but also ontological qualities in students – conscience, love, self-sacrifice, freedom of choice, and sensitivity to truth and meaning. The article develops a theological-pedagogical model of personal spiritual growth by analogy with the ascetic treatise The Ladder by St. John Climacus, in which each step represents a stage in the formation of a student’s moral maturity: from purification through self-knowledge to enlightenment and love as the highest spiritual goal. Particular attention is given to Viktor Frankl’s existential approach: logotherapy is considered a philosophical and psychological foundation for cultivating an inner sense of meaning in professional activity and for fostering the moral autonomy of the individual. A comparative analysis of ethics courses at leading universities around the world (University of Oxford, MIT, Stanford, TU Munich, Delft, Oslo, among others) demonstrates a global trend toward the inclusion of humanities and moral-ethical disciplines in the structure of STEM education. At the same time, the author shows that most such programs lack spiritual depth, anthropological dimension, and metaphysical reflection – elements that can be provided only through recourse to the Christian tradition. In this sense, the “Logos & Techne” methodology appears as an attempt to create a new educational paradigm in which scientific knowledge is united with a theological worldview, forming not only a competent but also a morally responsible and spiritually mature STEM specialist.

Imago et similitudo Dei: the meaning of humans being God’s image and likeness investigated from a Christianphilosophical perspective This investigation is an effort to determine the meaning of the Biblical revelation that human beings were created in the image and likeness of God and to do so from a Christian-philosophical perspective. The following steps are taken: The introduction is a reminder that one’s view of reality (ontology) and of being human (anthropology) is decisive in terms of how one will understand the meaning of “imago Dei”. It is illustrated, firstly in the older essentialistic (or ontological) viewpoints, which explained the image of God in man analogically, in other words as similarity and difference between the divine and human natures. Next, it is indicated that the more recent relational viewpoints on the image of God also cannot really indicate its full richness. The next section provides an exposition of how a few reformational philosophers understood this mysterious Biblical expression about the human being. It is indicated how their viewpoint about human beings can solve many misconceptions connected with the “imago et similitudo Dei” and also open new, wider perspectives. The concluding part will summarise the results of the investigation.

This study aims to provide a theoretical foundation for understanding the normative significance and practical implications of the concept of human dignity in contemporary constitutional and social contexts by re-examining its historical development through a functional perspective. While human dignity is widely recognized as the supreme principle of constitutional law in modern democratic states, the specific content and normative functions of this concept remain underexplored. Accordingly, this research analyzes the practical roles and normative functions that human dignity has performed across different historical and intellectual contexts, demonstrating that the concept has operated concretely within various historical frameworks rather than existing merely as an abstract declaration. Human dignity is a historically constructed concept that has evolved through ancient Greek and Roman philosophy, medieval Christian theology, early modern natural law theory, Kantian philosophy, and modern existentialism and critical theory. Specifically, in ancient Greek and Roman philosophy, human dignity served to justify the unique status and public honor of humans as rational beings. In medieval Christian theology, it expressed the sanctity of humans as imago Dei (the image of God). In early modern natural law theory and Kantian philosophy, it functioned as the philosophical foundation for individual freedom and rights. In modern existentialism and critical theory, it has served as a reference point for the critique of technological alienation, totalitarianism, and human rights violations. In the aftermath of World War II, the devastation of the war and the imperative to establish a new constitutional order led to the recognition of the inviolable value of human dignity at the constitutional level. Notably, the German Basic Law enshrines human dignity as the highest constitutional value, obliging all legislative, administrative, and judicial actions of the state to respect and protect it. However, human dignity has been criticized for its polysemic nature, which allows for varying interpretations depending on specific historical or social contexts, thereby complicating the establishment of unified legal standards. To address these criticisms, this study underscores the necessity of reinterpreting and systematizing the concrete content of human dignity in modern contexts and developing normative criteria that can be practically applied to real-world cases. Furthermore, human dignity must serve as a critical benchmark for addressing emerging challenges in contemporary society, such as advancements in artificial intelligence and biotechnology, climate change, and environmental crises. This functional analysis of the historical development of human dignity provides important insights for addressing contemporary challenges to human dignity while maintaining its fundamental normative significance.

Reviewed by: Augustine’s Early Theology of Image by Gerald P. Boersma Evgenia Moiseeva Gerald P. Boersma Augustine’s Early Theology of Image Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016 Pp. 318. $72.99. The description of Christ as the image of God first appeared in Paul’s Epistles, but it was not until the fourth century that the theology of image attracted attention of great theologians of the time such as Augustine. Boersma’s book focuses on Augustine’s early theology of image based on the works written before 391, such as Contra Academicos (2.2.1–2.3; 3.5.11–6.13; 3.17.37–20.45), De soliloquia (especially 2.6.10–7.13), De Genesis contra Manichaeos, De diversis quaestionibus octaginta tribus (51.4 and 74), and De vera religione. Before turning his attention to Augustine, Boersma, in the first part of the book, provides a synthesis of what he calls the pro-Nicene theology of image, together with a short notice on Tertullian and Novatian. The most influential voices of the Latin theology of image (e.g. Hilary of Poitiers, Marius Victorinus, and Ambrose of Milan) are concerned with the meaning of Colossians 1.15 that calls Christ the image of God. The great difficulty they are facing is Genesis 1.26, which also names humanity an image of God. They seek to reconcile Christology with anthropology, but with little success. Assuming that the true image of God shares the properties of God, they all conclude (with nuances) that humanity is not an image of God, but made according to the image; or, as in the case of Ambrose, humanity is a created image, whereas Christ is a perfect and uncreated one. The second part of the book follows the development of Augustine’s concept on the basis of the pro-Nicene Christology on the one hand, and of the Plotinian philosophy of image on the other hand. It is the Plotinian philosophy with its concept of participation that helps Augustine surpass his predecessors. In Augustine’s works, imago appears as an equivocal term that may describe something wrongly imagined or dreamed, but can also refer to a representation revealing the truth. The revelatory character of image is well demonstrated on the example of Proteus (Contra Academicos and De ordine), whose capacity to embody and to reveal the truth makes him a philosophical representation of Christ. A tight connection to the truth is an essential characteristic of image for Augustine; the image is able to unveil the truth because it originates from the truth. Originating from the truth also means participating in it. Humanity as well as Christ participates in God, and in this sense they are both images of God. If Christ is an image of perfect equality, humans are unequal images. Boersma’s discussion of the role of participatio in Augustine’s early theology of image is interesting, but I wish it was more persuasive. As the author himself remarks, this term is virtually absent in the Cassiciacum dialogues. However, we do find participatio in De moribus Manichaeorum 2 (Quaestiones 23 and 24) in the context of the participation of Christ and humanity in God but without a reference to imago. The emphasis on De diversis quaestionibus octoginta tribus 51.4 in Boersma’s analysis is problematic, because all we know is that De diversis quaestionibus was composed between 386 and 396. If Boersma believes that Quaestio 51, 4 was written before 391, it would be helpful to provide support [End Page 333] for this dating. The first time we clearly see Augustine speak about humanity as imago Dei in terms of participatio is in De Genesi liber imperfectus 16, written around 393–394. A brilliant rhetor, Augustine is known for his attention to the word choice. I am not entirely persuaded by the author’s suggestion that Augustine had used the concept well before he started using the associated vocabulary. It would be desirable to trace the introduction of participatio in Augustine’s theology of image on the basis of a more thorough textual analysis. In summary, the book is a well-written, academic synthesis of Augustine’s early theology of image that...

This essay explores the concept of imago Dei as "original righteousness" in the Old Testament, focusing on its theological implications for the sanctity of human life. ​The author examines the biblical foundation of the imago Dei in Genesis 1:26-27 and other scriptural passages, emphasizing humanity's unique creation in God's image and its implications for human dignity, value, and dominion over creation. Protestant perspectives, including those of Luther, Barth, Brunner, Thielicke, and Jenson, are analyzed alongside Roman Catholic views, particularly those of Thomas Aquinas and Pope John Paul II, highlighting differences in understanding the ontological and relational aspects of the imago Dei. The essay argues that the imago Dei is a permanent, unique, and God-given attribute that applies to all human beings, regardless of faith, and serves as a foundation for advocating the sanctity of life. ​The author concludes by addressing pro-life implications, emphasizing the need to protect human life at all stages and rejecting "anthropological nihilism" that equates human life with animal life. ​This theological exploration underscores the importance of the imago Dei in shaping ethical and moral frameworks for defending human dignity and life. ​

In the age of significant medical technology advancements, the management of complex medical conditions such as vegetative states presents profound ethical dilemmas for families, healthcare providers, and the community. This study explores the role of Christian theology in guiding ethical decision-making amidst these challenges, focusing on the concept of "imago Dei," which asserts that every human being is created in the image and likeness of God. Employing a qualitative-descriptive approach, this research integrates theological insights with medical dilemmas, emphasizing the importance of honoring human dignity and addressing ethical challenges in medical decision-making. The findings suggest that theological principles not only enrich medical understanding but also provide ethical and holistic guidance, these principles support decisions that honor the value of human life and patient dignity, whether in sustaining patient life or considering the termination of life-support measures. This study highlights the need for ongoing dialogue between theology and medical practice to ensure that healthcare remains sensitive to human and ethical aspects.AbstrakDalam era kemajuan teknologi medis yang signifikan, pengelolaan kondisi medis yang kompleks seperti kematian vegetatif menimbulkan dilema etis yang mendalam bagi keluarga, tenaga medis, dan masyarakat. Penelitian ini mengeksplorasi peran teologi Kristen dalam membimbing keputusan etis di tengah-tengah tantangan ini, dengan fokus khusus pada konsep "imago Dei" yang menyatakan bahwa setiap manusia diciptakan menurut gambar dan rupa Allah. Melalui pendekatan kualitatif-deskriptif, penelitian ini mengintegrasikan wawasan teologis dengan dilema medis, menekankan pentingnya menghargai martabat manusia dan mengatasi tantangan etis dalam pengambilan keputusan medis. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa prinsip-prinsip teologis tidak hanya memperdalam pemahaman medis, tetapi juga memberikan arahan etis dan holistik. Prinsip-prinsip ini mendukung keputusan yang menghormati nilai kehidupan manusia dan martabat pasien, baik dalam mendukung keberlangsungan hidup pasien maupun dalam mempertimbangkan terminasi alat bantu kehidupan. Studi ini menekankan kebutuhan akan dialog yang berkelanjutan antara teologi dan praktik medis untuk memastikan bahwa perawatan kesehatan tetap sensitif terhadap aspek kemanusiaan dan etika.

Modern developments in evolutionary and cognitive science have increasingly challenged the view that humans are distinctive creatures. In theological anthropology, this view is germane to the doctrine of the image of God. To address these challenges, imago Dei theology has shifted from substantial toward functional and relational interpretations: the image of God is manifested in our divine mandate to rule the world, or in the unique personal relationships we have with God and with each other. If computers ever attain human-level Artificial Intelligence, such imago Dei interpretations could be seriously contested. This article reviews the recent shifts in theological anthropology and reflects theologically on the questions raised by the potential scenario of human-level AI. It argues that a positive outcome of this interdisciplinary dialogue is possible: theological anthropology has much to gain from engaging with AI. Comparing ourselves to intelligent machines, far from endangering our uniqueness, might instead lead to a better understanding of what makes humans genuinely distinctive and in the image of God.

Theological Anthropology for the World of Today: 1 Gaudium et Spes 22

The Christological hymn in the Epistle to the Colossians names Christ as the only image of the invisible God, Qui est imago Dei invisibilis (Col. I: 15). This Pauline verse frequently employed by patristic writers was used as the epitome of an iconoclastic view, but it also served as both inspiration and theological justification for Christian art.1 St Paul developed his concept of Christ as the image not only in conjunction with the Genesis account of the creation ofman (Gen. I: 26), but also in relation to the reformation of fallen man back into the image of God (Rom. 8: 29, I Cor. 15: 48-49, II Cor. 3: 18. II Cor. 4: 4).2 In his Epistles he masterfully centred such crucial biblical themes as the creation and fall of man, the Incarnation of Christ as well as the restoration of man to divine grace around a lesson on the imago. The Pauline fusion of these themes established the imago as a complex and multi-layered concept and allowed later exegetes to view the image through a chain of biblical texts. To this chain some commentators added the idea of the visible as the image of something invisible, and their list often ended up with the artistic image;3 consequently everything was perceived as an image or a dark glass (cf I Cor. 13: 12) through which one glimpsed the divine.4 Following in the steps of the patristic exegetes, Insular writers developed their theology of the imago. Amongst these Insular writers, Bede (c. 673-735) and Columbanus (c. 543-615) were aware that the concept of the image bears in itself a multiplicity of connotations which included biblical and artistic meanings.5

The text, in continuity with the group’s previous publication and following Antiqua et Nova , highlights the difference between the prevailing AI definition of intelligence as rational action and problem-solving (often influenced by behaviorism and functionalism) and the traditional theological view of intelligence as a rational understanding and interpretation of reality. It stresses that human agency is fundamentally relational, rooted in the imago Dei (image of God), which involves intellect, free will, and stewardship. It discusses how AI, through practices like manipulative nudging, algorithmic governance, deskilling, and the rapidification of life, negatively impacts human freedom and promotes a paradigm focused on efficiency and control. Finally, the text proposes that the principles of Catholic social teaching, particularly subsidiarity and a focus on human dignity, offer ethical guidance for developing AI as a tool that genuinely supports human flourishing and responsible action rather than eroding it.

The complex theological treatment of the person as imago Dei has focused on ontological, functional, relational or eschatological interpretations, which either belong or possibly belong to all human beings. It is however unusual to encounter a reflection on the person’s intrinsic uniqueness as imago Dei. For Edith Stein intrinsic or a priori individuality refers to a unique quality of the person’s soul which unfolds more or less fully in the unity of the person’s body-soul-spirit unity: «the soul is destined for eternal being, and this destination explains why the soul is called upon to be an image of God in a “wholly personal manner.”» (FEB 504 [422]) This ontological approach contributes to a consideration of interpersonal enrichment through love, as a way to personal fulfilment and to complementarity through communion. An ontological approach to personal individuality thus paradoxically leads to the discovery of the existential primacy of relationality.