Artificial intelligence technologies and applications for language learning and teaching

There has been an increasing interest in the integration of technology into language education. Meanwhile, computational thinking (CT) skills are fostered which influence communicative language teaching and learning. Despite CT's established importance in science education, its significance in language teaching remains scarce. This study contributes to knowledge synthesis and methodological development by reviewing 16 journal articles, analyzing CT applications in language learning across educational contexts, intervention tools, CT skills, language acquisition, and assessment methods. The results indicate that (a) more CT-involved activities are needed for primary, secondary, and tertiary education, (b) educational robots and Scratch stand out as the most trending intervention tools, (c) CT skills such as decomposition, abstraction, generalization and so on have a positive effect on students’ foreign language acquisition, especially in grammar and writing, (d) assessment of CT development can be surveyed through a validated and reliable instrument such as computer programming self-efficacy scale or an online platform: Dr. Scratch; Conversely, there is a diversity of evaluation tools in foreign language learning. This study is the first to review experimental research on integrating computational thinking into foreign language learning and offers significant implications for future research.

<title>Abstract</title> In recent years, artificial intelligence (AI) has developed at a remarkable pace, bringing unprecedented opportunities and challenges to a wide range of fields, including healthcare, finance, and particularly education. Its application in foreign language teaching and learning has shown immense potential. However, as an emerging technology, the integration of AI into education remains in an exploratory stage. Existing studies often focus on isolated functionalities or preliminary outcomes, lacking a systematic and comprehensive theoretical and practical framework. Consequently, there are still significant gaps and controversies regarding the mechanisms, impact pathways, and sustainability of AI in second language acquisition.To address these research gaps, this study takes ChatGPT a representative generative AI tool as its central focus. It adopts the Systematic Literature Review (SLR) methodology, adhering to rigorous procedures of planning, execution, and reporting of the review. The goal is to systematically examine and synthesize the current body of domestic and international research on the application of ChatGPT in second language teaching and learning. Specifically, the study aims to identify the key dimensions in which AI can significantly support language instruction such as personalized learning, real-time feedback, motivation enhancement, and productive language output and to explore the mechanisms through which it facilitates language development. Additionally, the review seeks to pinpoint contradictions, limitations, and underexplored areas in the existing literature. Based on these findings, the paper offers targeted recommendations for future research and instructional practice to advance both theoretical understanding and educational effectiveness in the field of second language education.

Contents: Introduction. Part I: Important Social Contexts in Research on Second Language Teaching and Learning. Introduction. M.E. Brisk, Bilingual Education. M.R. Hawkins, ESL in Elementary Education. P.A. Duff, ESL in Secondary Schools: Programs, Problematics, and Possibilities. D.E. Murray, ESL in Adult Education. S. Carkin, English for Academic Purposes. P. Master, English for Specific Purposes. C. Roberts, English in the Workplace. B. Tomlinson, English as a Foreign Language: Matching Procedures to the Context of Learning. Y. Kachru, Teaching and Learning of World Englishes. Part II: Methods in Second Language Research. Introduction. L. Harklau, Ethnography and Ethnographic Research on Second Language Teaching and Learning. L. van Lier, Case Study. A. Lazaraton, Quantitative Research Methods. D. Nunan, Classroom Research. A. Burns, Action Research. Part III: Applied Linguistics and Second Language Research. Introduction. T. Pica, Second Language Acquisition Research and Applied Linguistics. S.L. McKay, Sociolinguistics and Second Language Learning. J. Zuengler, K.M. Cole, Language Socialization and Second Language Learning. G. Kasper, C. Roever, Pragmatics in Second Language Learning. J.P. Lantolf, Sociocultural and Second Language Learning Research: An Exegesis. N. Markee, Conversation Analysis for Second Language Acquisition. R.B. Kaplan, Contrastive Rhetoric. S. Conrad, Corpus Linguistics and L2 Teaching. Part IV: Second Language Processes and Development. Introduction. G. Ioup, Age in Second Language Development. R. DeKeyser, A. Juffs, Cognitive Considerations in L2 Learning. Z. Han, L. Selinker, Fossilization in L2 Learners. M. Swain, The Output Hypothesis: Theory and Research. E. Tarone, Speaking in a Second Language. M. Rost, L2 Listening. T.G. Wiley, Second Language Literacy and Biliteracy. P. Byrd, Instructed Grammar. D.E. Eskey, Reading in a Second Language. I.S.P. Nation, Teaching and Learning Vocabulary. J.S. Hedgcock, Taking Stock of Research and Pedagogy in L2 Writing. E. Hinkel, Analyses of Second Language Text and What Can Be Learned From Them. Part V: Methods and Curricula in Second Language Teaching. Introduction. S.J. Savignon, Communicative Language Teaching: Strategies and Goals. S. Fotos, Traditional and Grammar Translation Methods for Second Language Teaching. J. Williams, Form-Focused Instruction. M.A. Snow, A Model of Academic Literacy for Integrated Language and Content Instruction. R. Ellis, Instructed Language Learning and Task-Based Teaching. M. Celce-Murcia, E. Olshtain, Discourse-Based Approaches: A New Framework for Second Language Teaching and Learning. C.A. Chapelle, Computer-Assisted Language Learning. N.J. Anderson, L2 Learning Strategies. Part VI: Second Language Testing and Assessment. T. McNamara, Introduction. A.J. Kunnan, Language Assessment From a Wider Context. A. Davies, C. Elder, Validity and Validation in Language Testing. M. Chalhoub-Deville, C. Deville, A Look Back at and Forward to What Language Testers Measure. T. Lumley, A. Brown, Research Methods in Language Testing. D. Douglas, Testing Languages for Specific Purposes. C. Leung, Classroom Teacher Assessment of Second Language Development: Construct as Practice. Part VII: Identity, Culture, and Critical Pedagogy in Second Language Teaching and Learning. Introduction. T. Ricento, Considerations of Identity in L2 Learning. M. Byram, A. Feng, Teaching and Researching Intercultural Competence. S. Canagarajah, Critical Pedagogy in L2 Learning and Teaching. Part VIII: Language Planning and Policy and Language Rights. R.B. Baldauf, Jr., Introduction. R.B. Baldauf, Jr., Language Planning and Policy Research: An Overview. T. van Els, Status Planning for Learning and Teaching. A.J. Liddicoat, Corpus Planning: Syllabus and Materials Development. R.B. Baldauf, Jr., R.B. Kaplan, Language-in-Education Planning. D.E. Ager, Prestige and Image Planning. S. May, Language Planning and Minority Language Rights.

Reviewed by: Brave New Digital Classroom: Technology and Foreign Language Learning by Robert J. Blake Raquel Oxford Blake, Robert J . Brave New Digital Classroom: Technology and Foreign Language Learning. 2nd ed. Washington, DC : Georgetown UP , 2013 . Pp 222 . ISBN 978-1-58901-976-8 Technology integration in teaching and learning is an area of concern, interest, and discovery for many educators and administrators at all levels for multiple reasons, from enrollment management to enhanced learner engagement. The field of language learning is no exception, and guidance for those willing to explore various technologies is desirable. In this second edition of Brave New Digital Classroom: Technology and Foreign Language Learning, in eight reader-friendly chapters—each conclude with discussion questions and activities and a glossary sufficient for both the novice and more advanced reader—Robert Blake adeptly presents the case for anchoring implementation of various technologies on a strong foundation of principles of language acquisition. In chapter 1, “Second Language Acquisition, Language Teaching, and Technology,” Blake begins an exploration and delineation of how technology meshes with tenets of second language acquisition and within language learning contexts. The groundwork is set to emphasize that it is the learning—not the technology—that should drive the design for curriculum and instruction. Myth busting of four myths about technology and second language acquisition also sets the tone for inquiry and thoughtful implementation of technology with a purpose. The author addresses perhaps the most daunting challenge for those interested in technology integration in the absence of a strong language lab staff or university instructional technology services, the need for continuing education with the ever-changing landscape of new technologies. Blake seems ever mindful of the need to encourage appropriate technology use, as the title of chapter 2 suggests, “Web Pages in Service of L2 Learning.” Again, technology is in service of learning. A brief history, along with basic functioning, of the Internet is presented with preliminary thoughts on the pitfalls of simply superimposing technology on traditional grammar-driven pedagogy. The author leads to a more collaborative, student-centered approach with task-based instruction (TBI), but the generic formula he presents as a suggested procedure to start building a web-supported learning environment may itself be daunting to some neophytes to either the technology or TBI. A natural progression follows as Blake moves to chapter 3, “CALL and Its Evaluation: Programs and Apps.” The author starts with a history of the original computer-assisted language instruction (CALI) and moves to computer-assisted language learning (CALL), which as a “paradigm assumes that students bring certain schema to the learning process” (52). A table summarizing the stages of structural CALL in the 1970s and 1980s, communicative CALL in [End Page 701] the 1980s and 1990s, and the integrative CALL of the twenty-first century includes technology type, teaching paradigm, view of language, principal use of computers, and principal objective, in order to graphically show the evolution of CALL. Another key point is the desirability to be able to evaluate CALL; Blake shares the complexity of the task since such “may examine design, procedures, approaches or a combination of all of these factors” (71). Communication is a central component of language learning and earns singular focus in chapter 4, “Computer-Mediated Communication.” Blake begins with the ubiquitous nod to interactionist practices fundamental to SLA theories and makes an excellent presentation and synthesis of research, weaving together theory and practice, minus a somewhat lengthy inclusion of a case study of bimodal synchronous computer-mediated communication (SCMC). Even as he advocates for use of certain technologies, the author is honest about limitations and difficulties that both instructors and students may encounter when using such. In chapter 5, “Theory in Practice: Putting It All Together,” Blake recaps the pedagogical threads that should guide the integration of technology into the FL curriculum: multiple technological entry points . . . ; theory-driven applications of new technologies, not just for the sake of the use of any specific digital tool; student-centered classrooms; interactivity, agency, and students as co-producers of technologically enhanced materials; and pursuit of a third place in the quest for bilingualism and the development of intercultural communicative competence. (109) The author once more builds...

It is a common belief that engagement and motivation are crucial factors in learning and especially in language learning. In particular, increasing motivation can lead to the mobilization of students’ personal, cognitive, emotional and behavioral resources and, consequently to better learning results. As digital technology has become more sophisticated, its tools and applications can be used in and outside the classroom, in both formal and informal settings, in order to increase students’ motivation. Amongst the various factors -tools, methods or strategies- that can lead to increased motivation, this paper examines the role of technology as a motivational factor in foreign language learning. The relationship between the use of technological means such as web tools and services, digital games, mobile apps or communication tools and motivation in language learning context, has been studied extensively, with a wide variety of approaches, and within the framework of several language learning applications. In order to determine the real impact of technology on learners' motivation, an extensive literature review focusing on studies that have examined the impact of technology use in language learning and teaching on motivation to learn, has been carried out. Furthermore, this paper discusses the concept of motivation in learning context and the relationship between technology and language learning, summarizes some of the numerous studies and researches on this subject, presents a synthesis of the studies examined, and formulates conclusions and perspectives for effective integration of technology as a motivational tool / factor in language learning context.

Artificial intelligence (AI) is already part of our everyday life. Nowadays, facial recognition and autonomous driving are common applications of AI. It has now gone on to invade the field of medicine, and many studies showed promising applications of AI in radiology, pathology, endoscopy, and so on. Artificial intelligence (AI) has been a disruptive innovation in all areas of medicine including surgery. Not only has it been applied for research purpose but also AI can already provide significant solutions in clinical settings. Attention is now turning to the potential of AI in the field of endoscopic surgery. It is essential to understand how machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL) work, understand current applications in surgery, and prepare for the future of surgery in the era of AI.

This study focuses on primary foreign language teaching and learning. It seeks to reveal the perspectives and practice of three different stakeholders: specialist teachers, generalist teachers and head teachers. The study then places these beliefs and practice within a local, national and international context, considering the supporting factors for Primary Foreign Languages (PFL), as well as the challenges. It is a timely piece of research as it was conducted during the period when foreign language learning, for the first time in England, became statutory in primary schools. Furthermore, it took place during a timeframe of rapid change at all levels of education, which has had an effect on the translation of policy to practice. Data collection took place in two phases. In Phase One, an initial PFL practice mapping online questionnaire was sent to all schools in the Local Authority (LA) (n=69). Three schools agreed to participate. In Phase Two data collection methods employed in each of the three schools consisted of participant observations, semi-structured interviews, a self-reflective diary, informal conversation with staff and analysis of policy documents. The findings of the study show that all stakeholders in each school were supportive of PFL. However, this support did not translate into practice as the responsibility for PFL often rested solely with the specialist. As a result, the subject and specialists could be described as annexed, not fully integrated into the curriculum, and the specialists sought support from private companies instead of internally within the school. The majority of generalist teachers did not feel qualified to deliver the subject and there was a lack of future training options open to teachers wishing to train as PFL specialists. Those teachers who did express an interest in learning how to teach PFL felt that they could not engage fully with this endeavour due to internal and external pressure imposed upon them to achieve the highest possible pupil attainment in English and Maths. A disconnect was also revealed between the teachers’ most popular rationale for PFL teaching, which was preparing children to be ‘21st century global citizens’, and their actual practice. The teachers in the study recognised that, through learning a language and experiencing its culture, it may be possible to move from “egocentricity and ethnocentricity to a more altruistic sense of mutual benefit” (Byram, 2008:131). However, while espousing support for the teaching of intercultural understanding (ICU), the study reveals a lack of understanding in practice from stakeholders, policy writers and teachers. Overall, there is much goodwill for PFL as a subject, however, due to national and international drivers, it occupies a vulnerable place within the curriculum.

Machine translation (MT) is widely used in second or foreign language learning and is one of the most used language learning applications among tertiary learners. However, problems arise when learners are unable to utilise machine translation effectively, necessitating important instructor guidance. The present study aimed to explore university instructors’ beliefs about learners' use of machine translation in second or foreign language writing tasks and assessments and to investigate the extent to which teaching strategies and assessments are adapted in view of its widespread use. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected from 127 instructors at an institution of higher learning via questionnaire and semi-structured interview. Findings revealed that instructors concur with the use of machine translation as a useful auxiliary learning tool, as long as it is used with care and caution within clear guidelines and framework. Although the instructors have also made some adjustments to their teaching, their coping mechanisms are not sustainable owing to lack of clear guidelines on the use of machine translation in language learning. It is suggested that learner guidance and clear institutional guidelines be provided for optimal use of machine translation in language learning.

In AI in Foreign Language Learning and Teaching: Theory and Practice, Marcel Danesi underscores the ramifications of Artificial Intelligence (AI), including the use of tools like ChatGPT, on Foreign Language Teaching (FLT) and its critical components: language acquisition and teaching. Danesi covers several aspects of FLT to speak, write and assess, voicing their greatest concerns on the impact of AI. Danesi provides a balanced view, considering both the advantages and challenges of dependence on AI in language education. He articulates important ethical arguments on the impact of AI in education, particularly its failure to address students’ emotional and contextual concerns, while highlighting the gap human instructors fill. In addition, the book provides synthesis of the frameworks on the use AI technologies and pedagogical tools to improve FLT while maintaining the human dimension of teaching.

Corpus-based studies have provided an accurate description of language, and its new potentials for language structure and use have many applications in language learning. This paper tries to define corpora and their different types and discuss the contribution of concordancers to language learning and teaching providing some examples. Then we see how a number of areas of language study have benefited from exploiting corpora. These areas of language that have been examined with the help of language corpora include, but are not limited to: language description, lexicography, morphology, syntax, semantics, cultural studies, computer-assisted language learning, English for specific purposes, and translation.

This study focused on instructors teaching German as a foreign language at two UK universities and examined their experiences with and attitudes toward free online neural machine translation (FONMT). In September 2022, eight semi-structured interviews were conducted to gather data. The results indicate a general openness toward FONMT, with instructors making varying assumptions regarding their learners’ reasons for utilizing FONMT. In addition, the instructors’ underlying conceptions of language learning in relation to FONMT became apparent and influenced their perspectives on assessment. The author presents FONMT from an instructor's perspective as a triangular relationship between assumptions (about students’ rationales), expectations (in light of language learning), and assessment (of language learning). Consequently, it appeared essential to consider potential reasons for using FONMT and the objectives of language learning when implementing FONMT in foreign language teaching and learning. By doing so, strategies become visible for both teacher training and language instruction that may assist learners in a purposeful use of FONMT while resisting its allure.

This study examined the use of virtual reality (VR) scaffolding in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) instruction, focusing on its effects on speaking anxiety and learner perceptions and the need for tailored assessment methods. The study involved 34 Taiwanese university medical students and utilized quantitative and qualitative questionnaires. The quantitative results indicated a significant reduction in speaking anxiety and positive perceptions of VR-assisted learning. Qualitative findings revealed that students experienced dual anxieties related to language and technology during VR learning and nervousness during performance evaluations in a VR setting. This study highlights the importance of creating interactive scaffolding that considers individual learner differences and supports personalized learning experiences. It also underscores the necessity of adopting assessment strategies that align with VR environments’ unique, immersive nature in language instruction. Our findings contribute to the growing body of research on VR applications in language learning, offering valuable insights for educators and researchers aiming to leverage this innovative technology in the EFL context.

This special issue of NJLTL comprises contributions from researchers and practitioners engaged in foreign language teaching and learning in higher education – both within a Nordic context and beyond. Due to the large number of contributions received, the special issue will be published in two parts. The first part is scheduled for publication at the end of 2025, with the second part due to appear in Spring 2026. The first part includes 6 research contributions in the main section and 8 articles in the forum section. The articles, which focus on teaching and/or learning English, French, German, and Spanish as foreign languages, are written in Danish, English, Norwegian, and German.

An Introduction to Foreign Language Learning and Teaching presents an engaging, student-friendly guide to the fields of foreign language learning and teaching. For students beginning their study of these fields, the book provides essential background information, dealing with language learning and teaching in a clear and comprehensible way. An Introduction will also be of value to teachers in training and those already working in the field, providing an up-to-date overview which focuses on contemporary issues while at the same time providing an important historical perspective. The book covers both theoretical and practical aspects of the field and provides suggestions throughout for discussion and workshop activities. Matters related to classroom and task-based teaching are dealt with at length, making the book suitable for use on practical training courses, especially where a degree of theoretical background is also required. Although most of the examples used deal with English as a foreign language, the book offers a suitable introduction for teachers of any foreign language. In this age of unfettered global communication the teaching and learning of foreign languages have never been more important. An Introduction to Foreign Language Teaching and Learning will give you the head start you need to get ahead of the field.

While the main focus of national policy and research has continued to be on foreign language teaching, in the past two decades increasing attention has been given to heritage language learners and to the development of pedagogies which address their particular needs as well as the opportunities available to them. This chapter will chart general developments in language pedagogy beyond communicative language teaching noting both the degree to which they might be considered to apply to both foreign language and heritage language learning and where there are important distinctions to be made. Reference will be made here to groundbreaking work by Claire Kramsch and to the distinction she draws between communicative and subjective/symbolic competence in both language learning and use. It will then go on to set out a number of developments which are proving to have particular significance in the heritage language context, including interdisciplinary perspective (Content-Based Instruction –/Content and Language Integrated Learning –/Project-Based Language Learning ); intercultural/transcultural language learning perspective; multilingual, translanguaging perspective; learner agency and identity investment perspective; multisemiotic and intertextual perspective; digital technology perspective; arts perspective; decolonising, activist citizenship perspective. Finally, it will be argued that, taken as a whole, these developments provide a robust foundation for (a) a much more unified and democratic/ pluralist view of language and literacy education, (b) the development of dialogue between specialists across the spectrum of language education and indeed across the curriculum and (c) fostering closer collaboration between mainstream and community-based sectors.