Assessing China's “developing a water-saving society” policy at a river basin level: A structural decomposition analysis approach

Brazilian Environmental-Economic Accounting for Water: A structural decomposition analysis

The concept of “river basin management” calls for managing water resources at the river basin level in order to promote the sustainable use of water resources. Often the concept of river basin management is associated with the introduction of “river basin organisations” (RBOs) as special purpose organisations. However, in many developing countries, RBOs remain underfunded. Fiscal decentralisation involves shifting certain responsibilities for expenditures or revenues to lower levels of government. It usually involves a reallocation of functions and revenues so that functions are adequately funded. Fiscal decentralisation is supported by the principles of subsidiarity, disentanglement, cooperation, accountability and fiscal equivalence, with the latter asking for a congruence of those who pay for, who decide upon and who benefit from public goods. On the one hand, fiscal decentralisation can support RBOs if sufficient financial resources are allocated to them to fulfil their tasks. However, if RBOs are excluded from resources at the sub-national level, it can also be counterproductive and lead to increased competition with general-purpose jurisdictions at the sub-national level. <br> This discussion paper, therefore, asks the question of whether fiscal decentralisation supports or counteracts the funding of river basin management in the case of Mongolia, which has undergone parallel processes of institutionalising RBOs and of fiscal decentralisation in the last decade. In order to answer the overriding question, the paper analyses i) how competencies for various water governance functions between RBOs and other bodies at the sub-national level are formally allocated; ii) the funding arrangements in place for water-related functions of RBOs and other sub-national bodies; and iii) how RBOs and other sub-national authorities coordinate or compete for water governance funding, and what this implies for sustainable water resource use. The paper compares the responsibilities of national and various sub-national entities and assesses the extent to which the principles of disentanglement, cooperation, subsidiarity and accountability are applied in Mongolian water governance. It also analyses the formal and de facto funding sources and budgeting systems of the sub-national entities responsible for water management, in order to assess to what extent the principle of fiscal equivalence is realised. <br> The discussion paper finds that there is still considerable room for improving the realisation of the principles of disentanglement, cooperation, subsidiarity and accountability in the allocation of competencies in Mongolian water governance. At the sub-national level, a high number of actors are involved in water governance, and the allocation of various water governance functions between river basin authorities (RBAs), river basin councils (RBCs), Aimag environmental agencies (AEAs), and governors and assemblies at the levels of provinces (Aimags), districts (Soums) and communities (Bahgs) remains complex and convoluted. Despite a broad division of labour, a high level of overlap exists in terms of data management; monitoring water resources, water uses and law implementation; law enforcement; and to a certain degree the implementation of measures among these actors. <br> The principle of fiscal equivalence is also not fully realised in Mongolian water resources management. In terms of financing water governance, RBAs are primarily financed through the national budget and AEAs through sub-national province budgets. However, uncertainties exist regarding the allocation of water-use fees due to inconsistent legal provisions. In practice, available funds to RBAs only cover fixed costs. Thus, RBAs are largely assigned unfunded mandates for planning, monitoring and implementing water protection. This considerably limits the effectiveness of the river basin management approach. Overall, AEAs have somewhat higher budgets for environmental protection than RBAs. However, the case study shows, for example, that AEAs sometimes do not allocate any funds for water-related projects at all and do not necessarily earmark 35 per cent of water-use fees for environmental protection. <br> Furthermore, problems of underfinancing exacerbate problems of overlapping responsibilities. The inconsistent legal provisions on water-use fees have led to competition between AEAs and RBAs, which undermines trust between the different agencies and makes it more difficult to perform the tasks that they share as well as to coordinate on those tasks where their responsibilities overlap. Still, in the case analysed, recent first attempts have been undertaken to clarify responsibilities in Memorandums of Understanding. While the effectiveness of these Memorandums of Understanding should be subject to future research, they alone will hardly solve the problem of underfinancing. Therefore, the paper concludes that in Mongolia, fiscal decentralisation and the institutionalisation of river basin management are, so far, hardly mutually supportive, but rather competitive processes. It recommends a number of legal adjustments as well as the financial empowerment of RBAs and RBCs in order to support the sustainable use of water resources.

Optimizing conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater for irrigation to address human-nature water conflicts: A surrogate modeling approach

Due to the human activities and climate change, the scarcity of water resources and the deterioration of water environment has been a serious problem in Haihe river basin. It is important to study water withdrawal and water utilization structure for sustainable use of water resources in this area. We analyzed the present water utilization structure of Haihe river basin by using the information entropy theory. Results show that water structure entropy value of Beijing and Tianjin is higher than other provinces in the basin and the whole basin, which matches the fact that the agricultural, industrial, domestic, and ecological water use are relatively balanced in Beijing and Tianjin while the proportion of agricultural water use is extremely large in other provinces of the basin. GM (1, 1) model and grey Markov model have been developed for simulation and predicting the evolution of water utilization structure in Haihe river basin. According to the results, the accuracy of grey Markov model was higher, which predicated the reduction of agricultural and industrial water consumption, and the increase of domestic and ecological water consumption in the future. Specifically, the model predicted that the proportion of water utilization structure in terms of ratio of agricultural, industrial, domestic, and ecological water use would change from 64.7:14.9:17.0:3.4 in 2011 to 63.4:12.2:20.2:4.2 in 2020, and the total water consumption will be reduced to 2.9 billion m3.KeywordsHaihe river basinwater utilization structureinformation entropygrey Markovprediction model

This research is focused on the water usage patterns in two student residences—one for male students (Residence I) and the other for female students (Residence II). Surveys and measurements of flushing cisterns, taps, and shower flows were conducted to understand water use behaviors. Scenario 1 proposed replacing washbasin and kitchen taps and installing flow reducers in showers, while Scenario 2 combined Scenario 1 with a rainwater harvesting system for recharging flush cisterns. Showers were found to be the most water-consuming devices, accounting for 46% and 61.41% of water consumption in Residences I and II, respectively, followed by kitchen taps (31.51% in Residence I and 11.52% in Residence II). The flushing cistern consumption was 7.02% in Residence I and 13.22% in Residence II. The implementation of Scenario 1 anticipates a 13% reduction in total water consumption in Residence I and a 10% reduction in Residence II. The reduction in hot water consumption would result in a decrease in annual electricity consumption by 27.8% and 23.06% in Residence I and II, respectively. With the implementation of Scenario 2, the total potential water savings for Residence I could increase to 19.98%, and for Residence II, it could rise to 23.17%. The proposed measures aim to enhance water sustainability in these buildings and can be replicated elsewhere.

Environmental policies are characterized by a growing emphasis on participation, devolution and negotiated decision making. Increasingly, centralized top down decision making systems are being replaced by new forms of local governance. In their strongest versions, these involve delegation of formal authority to local stakeholders who are expected to decide collectively upon the management rules of local common-pool resources. Devolution is particularly important in relation to the allocation and management of scarce water resources. Indeed the French water law of 1992 institutionalised the notion of devolution by requiring that water management rules be negotiated at the river basin level between all stakeholders. Although stakeholder negotiation is becoming increasingly important, relatively little is understood about the influence of the structure of negotiations on their outcomes. There is therefore a rising demand for applied simulation models which can be used as 'negotiation-support tools' to address such questions as: what criteria should determine participation rules? What kind of biases result from power asymmetries? In this paper, we apply the Rausser-Simon (RS) framework to a specific negotiation process, involving water use and storage capacity. The RS framework is a computable non cooperative bargaining model designed to study complex real world multi-agent, multi-issue negotiation problems. The elements of the modelled negotiation structure include: the list of participants at the bargaining table; the set of issues being negotiated; the decision rule; political weights ("access"); and the nature of the outcome if agreement cannot be reached (the fall-back option). The application we consider focuses on the upper part of the Adour Basin in south-western France. In- creased irrigation use in recent years has led to recurrent water shortages, resulting in increased tensions among water users and potential damages to aquatic life. Public authorities have offered to finance new water supply facilities provided that stakeholders can agree on management issues such as quota allocations, water prices and dam configuration. A number of issues arise concerning the relationship between the structure of the negotiating process and the effectiveness with which participating stakeholders can pursue their individual interests. The case study is modelled with seven aggregate players (three aggregate farmers representing three sub-basins - upstream, midstream and downstream - two environmental lobbies, the taxpayer and the water manager), and with up to nine negotiated variables (water quotas and water prices in each sub- basin, and the capacities of three dams). Farmers' utility functions are estimated using hydraulic data and calibrated linear programming farm models. The richness of the data and institutional information available to us provides a realistic environment in which to examine the effect of negotiation structure on participant power. We focus in particular on the three farmer stakeholder group, whose interests are aligned but distinct, and so form a natural negotiating coalition. We construct experiments that enable us to evaluate the effects of negotiation structure on the effectiveness of this coalition. Our comparative statics experiments highlight a number of aspects of the relationship between negotiation structure and bargaining power. In addition to the standard indices of bargaining power - the distribution of access and "default strength" (i.e., stakeholders' relative tolerance for the outcome if negotiations break down) - our analysis identifies a number of other less obvious sources of power. A coalition member can advance his own interests by ceding his own political access to another coalition member who has a "better" strategic location. It is also shown that while the interests of the coalition as a whole will be advanced if its members cede access to a "spokesman" representing their common interests, some coalition members may be adversely affected. Finally, we consider the effect on the coalition of restricting the set of proposals that may be placed on the bargaining table in order to mitigate "beggar thy neighbour" behaviour by coalition members. This improves all farmers' utilities, except in some specific cases in which external constraints initially oblige players to act as if they were playing cooperatively. In conclusion, the value of this model is to be used by the negotiation stakeholders to explore the implications of alternative specifications of 2 the bargaining environment. In particular, the simulations reveal that the ways in which the negotiation structure interact with stakeholder bargaining power are complex and lead to non intuitive outcomes.

The Heihe River Basin is the second largest inland river basin in the arid region of northwestern China, and aeolian desertification is one of the most serious environmental issues it faces. Monitoring and analysis of the dynamics of aeolian desertification in this region could improve the understanding of its status and developmental trajectory, which is important for establishing effective and reasonable countermeasures. Based on a combination of multi-temporal Landsat images and GIS analysis, the temporal and spatial evolutions of aeolian desertification in the Heihe River Basin from 1975 to 2010 were reconstructed using visual interpretation methods. The driving force behind aeolian desertification and its sensitivity to climate change and human activities was clarified based on local meteorological and hydrographic data. The results showed that in 2010, aeolian desertified land covered 10,528.07 km2 (8.2 %) of the study area and most aeolian desertification was classified as severe or extremely severe. The expansion of the area of aeolian desertified land was gradual from 1975 to 2000, but it then decreased rapidly from 2000 to 2010. Climatic variability showed similar trends to that of aeolian desertification during the study period; however, excessive and uncontrolled water use due to an increase in the cultivated area, agricultural irrigation, and construction of water conservancy facilities was the main cause of aeolian desertification. Political measures are the principal factors behind the alleviation of desertification, and its reversal can be the result of the implementation of integrated water management and comprehensive environmental protection and restoration projects.

Farmers’ attitudes toward mandatory water-saving policies: A case study in two basins in northwest China

Socioeconomic drivers of water use in China during 2002–2017

This paper established a by sector water consumption and economy analysis integrated model with input–output analysis method. The model can be used to identify the relationships between economic activities and the direct water consumption, the total water consumption and the intersectoral water transaction for detailed sectors in regional economy. The method is applied to Hai River Basin in China that is characterized by water shortage. The results found that in Hai River Basin, agriculture sector is responsible for 81.2% of the direct total water consumption in the region, but industrial and service sectors account for 53.2% of the indirect total water consumption. To 24 industrial and service sectors, their ratios of indirect water consumption to total water consumption belong to [90%, 99%]. To per unit output, water consumption intensity was highest in agriculture sector 1 at 96.91 m3 per thousand Yuan, the value of 28 industrial and service sectors were smaller than 1. Products of sector 1, sector 24, sector 3, sector 12, sector 6, sector 11 and sector 10 are the main suppliers of indirect water.

Analysis of water consumption in toilets employing Shewhart, EWMA, and Shewhart-EWMA combined control charts

Stakeholder participation is a key principle of the integrated water resources management. It is a central issue in planning and decision making processes for the development of suitable water resources management strategies at the river basin level. This study tests a methodology for identifying stakeholders’ preferences regarding water resources management objectives, to incorporate them in the design of water resources management plans at the river basin level. The empirical application of this study focused in Mozambique, on the Incomati river basin. This research applies the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) method to evaluate stakeholders’ involvement and participation in the selection of water resources management plans. This research revealed that there are heterogeneities in stakeholders’ individual groups preferences regarding water resources management objectives and the management options of their satisfaction. Furthermore it revealed the potential utility of the AHP methodological framework in facilitating stakeholders’ participation and involvement in planning and decision-making processes for the development of water resources management plans. The application of this approach may improve water governance at the river basin level through higher commitments of stakeholders to the proposed objectives.

The changes in the annual distribution of mountain runoff during the period of 1965–2018 in Hexi Corridor, Northwest China

Spatially distributed actual evapotranspiration (ETa) val- ues were estimated based on satellite data and the Surface Energy Balance System (SEBS) approach for the Karkheh River Basin, Iran. Nineteen cloud free MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spec- troradiometer) images, representing a complete cropping year from November 2002 to October 2003 were acquired and processed. Esti- mated ETa values were verified using sub-catchment scale water bal - ance analysis. The results revealed that during the study period ETa was estimated at 16680x10 6 m 3 and that the water balance closure terms at sub-basin scale ranged from 0.6% to 7.2% of precipitation. This implies that water balance is sufficiently understood. Estimated outflow from the basin was 7.8% of precipitation and indicates that water is a very scarce resource in the Karkheh. Rain fed areas con- sume about 3720 x10 6 m 3 /year and are mainly located in the sub- catchments of the upper Karkheh while irrigated areas consume 2680x 10 6 m 3 /year and are mainly located in the lower areas in the basin. Total water consumption by forest is about 2070×10 6 m 3 /year, mainly in the middle parts of the basin. The range lands are scattered mainly all over the Upper Karkheh and together with areas in the Lower Karkheh consume about 3360×10 6 m 3 /year. ETa from other land uses is 4110×10 6 m 3 /year, of which ETa from open water surfac- es is the main contributor. The Karkheh Dam evaporates 80×10 6 m 3 / year while wetlands located in the lower area of the basin evaporate 660×10 6 m 3 /year. Satellite data along with the SEBS algorithm and geo-statistical techniques are effective to estimate spatial patterns of water consumption and availability. These facilitate the introduction of diverse management interventions to different areas in the basin based on the real ground situation.

Domestic hot water consumption pattern: Relation with total water consumption and air temperature