Assessing STEM differentiation needs based on spatial ability and engagement: implications for making activities

Students’ spatial visualization ability is a key component in understanding geometry, yet many students exhibit suboptimal performance in this area. This study aimed to (1) evaluate the quality of the Geogebra-assisted 6E-IM learning model, (2) examine its effect on students' spatial visualization ability, and (3) describe students' ability levels after receiving the intervention. A sequential explanatory mixed-methods design was used. The independent variable was the Geogebra-assisted 6E-IM model, while the dependent variable was students’ spatial visualization ability. A total of 60 students participated, with 30 assigned to the experimental group and 30 to the control group. Data were collected through tests, interviews, and questionnaires. Quantitative results showed that students in the experimental group significantly outperformed the control group (p < 0.05), indicating a positive effect of the Geogebra-assisted 6E-IM model on spatial visualization ability. Qualitative analysis revealed that students with high ability met all spatial visualization indicators; those with moderate ability met two indicators, while those with low ability met only one. These findings demonstrate that the integration of Geogebra in the 6E-IM learning model can effectively enhance students’ spatial visualization skills in geometry. This study contributes to the development of innovative, technology-integrated instructional strategies in mathematics education.

This study investigated prospective social studies teachers’ spatial abilities. It was conducted with 234 prospective teachers attending Social Studies Teaching departments at Education Faculties of two universities in Central and Southern Anatolia. This study, designed according to the explanatory-sequential design, is a mixed research method, involving two stages. The first stage was conducted in the causal-comparative research design. The data were collected using “Mental Rotation Test” and “Surface Development Test”. Descriptive statistics, MANOVA and ANOVA were used to analyze the data. The second stage was designed as a case study. “Opinion Form for Spatial Ability Tests” was used to elicit the views of 37 prospective teachers (F:20, M:17) identified via the purposive sampling method. The qualitative data obtained were analyzed using the content analysis technique. The study results showed that spatial visualization and mental rotation abilities of the prospective teachers were low; male prospective teachers were betterqualified than female ones in mental rotation but spatial visualization ability did not vary by gender. Moreover, prospective teachers with higher academic averages had better spatial abilities. Integrating virtual environment applications such as Google Earth etc. into social studies courses and using them in these courses can help to improve prospective teachers’ spatial abilities.

In the realm of virtual reality (VR) research, the synergy of methodological advancements, technical innovation, and novel applications is paramount. Our work encapsulates these facets in the context of spatial ability assessments conducted within a VR environment. This paper presents a comprehensive and integrated framework of VR, eye-tracking, and electroencephalography (EEG), which seamlessly combines measuring participants’ behavioral performance and simultaneously collecting time-stamped eye tracking and EEG data to enable understanding how spatial ability is impacted in certain conditions and if such conditions demand increased attention and mental allocation. This framework encompasses the measurement of participants’ gaze pattern (e.g., fixation and saccades), EEG data (e.g., Alpha, Beta, Gamma, and Theta wave patterns), and psychometric and behavioral test performance. On the technical front, we utilized the Unity 3D game engine as the core for running our spatial ability tasks by simulating altered conditions of space exploration. We simulated two types of space exploration conditions: (1) microgravity condition in which participants’ idiotropic (body) axis is in statically and dynamically misaligned with their visual axis; and (2) conditions of Martian terrain that offers a visual frame of reference (FOR) but with limited and unfamiliar landmarks objects. We specifically targeted assessing human spatial ability and spatial perception. To assess spatial ability, we digitalized behavioral tests of Purdue Spatial Visualization Test: Rotations (PSVT: R), the Mental Cutting Test (MCT), and the Perspective Taking Ability (PTA) test and integrated them into the VR settings to evaluate participants’ spatial visualization, spatial relations, and spatial orientation ability, respectively. For spatial perception, we applied digitalized versions of size and distance perception tests to measure participants’ subjective perception of size and distance. A suite of C# scripts orchestrated the VR experience, enabling real-time data collection and synchronization. This technical innovation includes the integration of data streams from diverse sources, such as VIVE controllers, eye-tracking devices, and EEG hardware, to ensure a cohesive and comprehensive dataset. A pivotal challenge in our research was synchronizing data from EEG, eye tracking, and VR tasks to facilitate comprehensive analysis. To address this challenge, we employed the Unity interface of the OpenSync library, a tool designed to unify disparate data sources in the fields of psychology and neuroscience. This approach ensures that all collected measures share a common time reference, enabling meaningful analysis of participant performance, gaze behavior, and EEG activity. The Unity-based system seamlessly incorporates task parameters, participant data, and VIVE controller inputs, providing a versatile platform for conducting assessments in diverse domains. Finally, we were able to collect synchronized measurements of participants’ scores on the behavioral tests of spatial ability and spatial perception, their gaze data and EEG data. In this paper, we present the whole process of combining the eye-tracking and EEG workflows into the VR settings and collecting relevant measurements. We believe that our work not only advances the state-of-the-art in spatial ability assessments but also underscores the potential of virtual reality as a versatile tool in cognitive research, therapy, and rehabilitation.

Spatial ability is discussed in terms of psychometric factors and information processing research. Reanalysis of major psychometric studies suggests two major spatial factors — spatial relations and spatial visualization ability. Apparent differences between these factors in speed versus power and cognitive complexity are verified by process analyses of individual differences in spatial relations and visualization ability. Information processing studies suggest multiple sources of individual differences such as process execution speed, quality and capacity of representation, process coordination and strategies for problem solution. Consideration is also given to additional issues for research as well as implications for testing.

BackgroundIn medical education research, various questionnaires are often used to study possible relationships between strategies and approaches to teaching and learning and the outcome of these. However, judging the applicability of such questionnaires or the interpretation of the results is not trivial.MethodsAs a way to develop teacher thinking, teaching strategy profiles were calculated for teachers in a research intensive department at Karolinska Institutet. This study compares the sum score, that was inherent in the questionnaire used, with an Item Response Theory (IRT) approach. Three teaching dimensions were investigated and the intended sum scores were investigated by IRT analysis.ResultsAgreements as well as important differences were found. The use of the sum score seemed to agree reasonably with an IRT approach for two of the dimensions, while the third dimension could not be identified neither by a the sum score, nor by an IRT approach, as the items included showed conflicting messages.ConclusionsThis study emphasizes the possibilities to gain better insight and more relevant interpretation of a questionnaire by use of IRT. A sum score approach should not be taken for granted. Its use has to be thoroughly evaluated.

Supporting mathematics learning: a review of spatial abilities from research to practice

Data-driven item selection for the Shirts and Shoes Test

This research investigated the predictive relationship between Creative self-efficacy and Spatial visualization ability among gifted high school students in Saudi Arabia, in light of the knowledge transformation required to achieve the Kingdom's Vision 2030. The study utilized Bandura's social-cognitive theory framework to address a notable gap in Arabic literature regarding the interplay between cognitive experience and affective belief. The study used a descriptive correlational approach, applying the Revised PSVT:R and the Creative Self-Efficacy Scale to a sample of gifted high school students. The descriptive results showed that the sample had very high levels of both creative self-efficacy and spatial visualization ability, confirming the superior affective and cognitive characteristics of this group. The results of the correlation analysis showed a positive and statistically significant correlation between creative self-efficacy and spatial visualization ability. (r = 0.48, p < 0.001). More importantly, linear regression analysis revealed that spatial visualization ability statistically significantly predicts creative self-efficacy (B= 0.49, p < 0.001), with spatial visualization explaining approximately 23% of the variance in creative self-efficacy among gifted students. The study concludes that cognitive superiority in spatial ability acts as a cognitive lever that enhances students' affective confidence in their ability to innovate, supporting the hypothesis of reciprocal interaction between creative self-efficacy and spatial visualization ability. The study recommends the integration of intensive and systematic spatial visualization training programs into gifted education curricula, not only to improve technical skills, but also to enhance their creative self-efficacy and support the development of creative human capital to achieve national development goals.

Previous research has shown that psychometrically assessed cognitive abilities are predictive of achievements in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) even in highly selected samples. Spatial ability, in particular, has been found to be crucial for success in STEM, though its role relative to other abilities has been shown mostly when assessed years before entering higher STEM education. Furthermore, the role of spatial ability for mathematics in higher STEM education has been markedly understudied, although math is central across STEM domains. We investigated whether ability differences among students who entered higher STEM education were predictive of achievements during the first undergraduate year. We assessed 317 undergraduate students in Switzerland (150 from mechanical engineering and 167 from math-physics) on multiple measures of spatial, verbal and numerical abilities. In a structural equation model, we estimated the effects of latent ability factors on students’ achievements on a range of first year courses. Although ability-test scores were mostly at the upper scale range, differential effects on achievements were found: spatial ability accounted for achievements in an engineering design course beyond numerical, verbal and general reasoning abilities, but not for math and physics achievements. Math and physics achievements were best predicted by numerical, verbal and general reasoning abilities. Broadly, the results provide evidence for the predictive power of individual differences in cognitive abilities even within highly competent groups. More specifically, the results suggest that spatial ability’s role in advanced STEM learning, at least in math-intensive subjects, is less critical than numerical and verbal reasoning abilities.

The objectives of this study were (1) to describe the spatial abilities of students using the Van Hiele thinking stages, (2) to find out the differences in students' spatial abilities in terms of the Van Hiele thinking stages based on the Van Hiele level groups. The method used is a mixed method type design, sequential explanatory with qualitative research followed by quantitative research first. Qualitative data collection techniques using observation, tests, and interviews with the subject of 6 students. Quantitative data collection technique with a sample obtained of 64 students using a test, by testing the hypothesis using the one way ANOVA test. The results of this study are as follows (1) Students' spatial abilities in terms of the Van Hiele thinking stage level 0 (Visualization) only meet the indicator spatial ability, namely spatial visualization, at the Van Hiele thinking stage level 1 (Analysis) meets the spatial ability indicators, namely spatial visualization and mental rotation. at the Van Hiele thinking stage level level 2 (informal deduction) fulfills all spatial ability indicators, namely spatial visualization, spatial perception and mental rotation, (2) There are differences in students' spatial abilities in terms of Van Hiele thinking stages based on group level 0 (Visualization), level 1 (Analysis), and level 2 (Informal Deduction).

Although spatial ability is related to success in the sciences, relatively little research has considered the relationship of spatial abilities with common misconceptions and broader conceptual difficulties in the Earth sciences. Spatial thinking and abilities have not commonly been directly addressed in traditional education. In this study, I found moderately significant positive correlations between scores on the ESC, a new test of Earth science conceptual understanding, and scores on each of three types, or factors, of spatial ability in university undergraduate non-science majors. Types of spatial ability tested included mental rotation, spatial perception, and spatial visualization. I found mental rotation to be the best predictor of ESC scores of the variables tested. Results suggest that an opportunity may exist to improve Earth science conceptual understanding by focusing on spatial abilities or the spatial aspects of concepts.

Based on preliminary study data at Yadika 8 Jatimulya Vocational School, it was found that mathematics scores, especially in understanding and solving geometric problems, were still low. This information was obtained through documentation studies and interviews with mathematics teachers in class X majoring in AKL-1, who revealed students' difficulties in understanding and solving geometry problems. Even after the material and examples have been taught, students still experience difficulties when faced with new questions with changes in numbers and question patterns. Their ability to analyze story problems and picture questions and relate them to objects around them is also relatively low. In response to these findings, this research aims to describe the spatial abilities of students who have visual, auditory and kinesthetic learning styles. This research is entitled "Analysis of Spatial Visual Ability in Solving Geometry Problems in View of the Learning Style of Class X Students of Vocational School Yadika 8 Jatimulya" and applies descriptive research methods with a qualitative approach. Research subjects were selected using a purposive sampling technique, namely with certain considerations after giving a learning style questionnaire to all class X students at SMK Yadika 8 Jatimulya. One class was selected that had students with three different learning styles: visual, auditory, or kinesthetic. Next, students were given a written test on flat-sided spatial figures to measure their spatial abilities, and unstructured interviews were used as a data collection method. The results showed variations in students' visual spatial abilities based on their learning styles. Students with a visual learning style have good abilities in imagination, concepts, problem solving, and searching for visual patterns. Students with an auditory learning style have good abilities in concepts and problem solving, although their imagination is less strong. Students with a kinesthetic learning style seem to face difficulties in all aspects of visual-spatial abilities. In addition, the test results show that the majority of students have a moderate level of visual spatial ability. They are able to understand geometric concepts and apply them well, but there are some students who show low visual spatial abilities that require further attention. The research results also revealed a correlation between students' learning styles and their visual spatial abilities. Students with a visual learning style tend to have higher visual-spatial abilities than students with an auditory or kinesthetic learning style. This highlights the importance of understanding students' learning styles in designing effective learning strategies. Overall, this research emphasizes the importance of visual spatial abilities in solving geometric problems and the influence of students' learning styles on these abilities. This has important implications in developing learning strategies that suit individual student learning styles, especially in the context of learning geometry at SMK Yadika 8 Jati Mulya. Teachers can utilize the results of this research to design more effective learning approaches and increase the potential of each student.

Evidence on the poorer spatial visualization ability in various Negro populations compared to the white populations and on the direction and magnitude of sex difference in spatial ability relative to other abilities suggests the genetic hypothesis that spatial ability is enhanced by a sex-linked recessive gene and that, since the 20-30 percent admixture of Caucasian genes in American Negroes came mostly from male white ancestors, relatively fewer X-linked than autosomal Caucasian genes were transmitted to the American Negro gene pool. The genetic model as explicitly formulated indicates the kinds of data which could substantiate or disporve the theory, but which do not now exist.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of an instruction using geologic planar figures on high school students` ability of spatial visualization and geologic spatial ability and also to explore its applicability as an instructional strategy through the investigation of students` perception about the instruction using mixed methodology. For this purpose, we developed 10 planar figures of geologic structures (2 horizontal layers, 2 vertical layers, 4 angular layers, 1 fault, and 1 fold), and tested students` spatial visualization ability and geologic spatial ability before and after the implementation in class. In addition, in order to investigate students` perception on the instruction, we conducted quantitative research using questionnaires comprised of the cognitive and the affective domain, and followed by focus group interview that was conducted to obtain deeper understanding of their perception. Findings revealed that the instruction using geologic planar figures was effective to enhance spatial visualization ability and geologic spatial ability. It was also helpful for students to enhance their ability to perceive the spatial configuration of the geologic structures as well as the ability to penetrate visually into the images of the structures. The results of the students` perception on the instruction showed that the students recognized the instruction using geologic planar figures as a strongly positive teaching method both in the cognitive and affective domain. We concluded that geologic planar figures could be used as an effective tool for the lesson of `mapping and interpreting of geological map`, and be highly applicable for the advanced class in high schools.

Self-reported symptoms, FEV1, and clinician judgment are all used to evaluate asthma control. The relative utility of each measure of control cannot be easily assessed. Item response theory (IRT) approaches allow for the direct comparison of the utility of different types of measures used to assess control. The objective of this study was to evaluate the validity and reliability of evaluating asthma control using symptom, clinical, and physiologic measures by applying an IRT approach. Subjects receiving care at an asthma clinic were evaluated on measures of asthma control. Based on 114 evaluations, IRT parameters were estimated to evaluate whether measures assessed a single underlying construct, the hierarchical relationship between the measures and the level of control each measure assessed, whether measures targeted all levels of asthma control, and whether the scoring categories distinguished between different levels of control. Infit statistics (0.74–1.5) for individual items showed that all items fit the underlying concept of asthma control. The reproducibility of the hierarchal scale was high (0.9). The results also demonstrated that items differentiated two strata (high, low) of control. The gaps in the hierarchal scale showed that for many subjects (37%) there were no items at their level of asthma control. The IRT approach identified gaps in current measurement that need to be addressed to provide more precise evaluations of control required to accurately monitor changes in patient status.