Attentional Shifting Mediates the Relationship between Parenting and Working Memory

A longitudinal analysis of screen time and executive function in young children

Objective: The current study investigated executive function (EF) in young children with and without autism spectrum disorder (ASD) using multiple methods of assessment. Method: Young children (M = 63.2 months) with and without ASD, matched on age, IQ, and maternal education, were assessed on computerized measures of working memory, inhibition, flexibility, and planning. Parents completed a behavior rating scale assessing children’s EF within everyday contexts. Results: There were no significant group differences on working memory, inhibition, flexibility, or planning. The mean difference on one aspect of the planning task (number of correct trials), however, approached significance and showed a medium to large effect size. There was also a significant difference between groups on the EF behavior rating scale, indicating that participants with ASD demonstrated greater executive dysfunction, as indexed by parent report. Conclusions: The results suggest that in young children with ASD, EF difficulties may only become apparent when situational demands require coordinating multiple abilities, as assessed with scales indexing children’s abilities to manage their day-to-day EF-related behavior. We suggest that multiple methods are needed to achieve a comprehensive and valid EF assessment in young children with ASD.

Verbal working memory is poorer for children with hearing loss than for peers with normal hearing (NH), even with cochlear implantation and early intervention. Poor verbal working memory can affect academic performance, especially in higher grades, making this deficit a significant problem. This study examined the stability of verbal working memory across middle childhood, tested working memory in adolescents with NH or cochlear implants (CIs), explored whether signal enhancement can improve verbal working memory, and tested two hypotheses proposed to explain the poor verbal working memory of children with hearing loss: (a) Diminished auditory experience directly affects executive functions, including working memory; (b) degraded auditory inputs inhibit children's abilities to recover the phonological structure needed for encoding verbal material into storage. Fourteen-year-olds served as subjects: 55 with NH; 52 with CIs. Immediate serial recall tasks were used to assess working memory. Stimuli consisted of nonverbal, spatial stimuli and four kinds of verbal, acoustic stimuli: nonrhyming and rhyming words, and nonrhyming words with two kinds of signal enhancement: audiovisual and indexical. Analyses examined (a) stability of verbal working memory across middle childhood, (b) differences in verbal and nonverbal working memory, (c) effects of signal enhancement on recall, (d) phonological processing abilities, and (e) source of the diminished verbal working memory in adolescents with cochlear implants. Verbal working memory remained stable across middle childhood. Adolescents across groups performed similarly for nonverbal stimuli, but those with CIs displayed poorer recall accuracy for verbal stimuli; signal enhancement did not improve recall. Poor phonological sensitivity largely accounted for the group effect. The central executive for working memory is not affected by hearing loss or cochlear implantation. Instead, the phonological deficit faced by adolescents with CIs denigrates the representation in storage and augmenting the signal does not help.

Although executive function (EF) is often considered a domain-general cognitive function, a distinction has been made between the "cool" cognitive aspects of EF more associated with dorsolateral regions of prefrontal cortex and the "hot" affective aspects more associated with ventral and medial regions (Zelazo & M�ller, 2002). Assessments of EF in children have focused almost exclusively on cool EF. In this study, EF was assessed in 3- to 5-year-old children using 2 putative measures of cool EF (Self-Ordered Pointing and Dimensional Change Card Sort) and 2 putative measures of hot EF (Children's Gambling Task and Delay of Gratification). Findings confirmed that performance on both types of task develops during the preschool period. However, the measures of hot and cool EF showed different patterns of relations with each other and with measures of general intellectual function and temperament. These differences provide preliminary evidence that hot and cool EF are indeed distinct, and they encourage further research on the development of hot EF.

The role of verbal and visuospatial working memory in rule-based and information-integration category learning was examined. Previously, Maddox, Ashby, Ing, and Pickering found that a sequentially presented verbal working memory task did not affect information-integration learning, but disrupted rule-based learning when the rule was on the spatial frequency of a Gabor stimulus. This pattern was replicated in Experiment 1, in which the same category structures were used, but in which the verbal working memory task was replaced with a visuospatial analog. Experiment 2A examined rule-based learning on an oblique orientation and also found both verbal and visuospatial working memory tasks disrupting learning. Experiment 2B examined rule-based learning on a cardinal orientation and found a minimal effect of the verbal working memory task, but a large effect of the visuospatial working memory task. The conceptual significance of cardinal orientations and the role of visuospatial and verbal working memory in category learning are discussed.

Many aspects of human performance require producing sequences of items in serial order. The current study takes a multiple-case approach to investigate whether the system responsible for serial order is shared across cognitive domains, focusing on working memory (WM) and word production. Serial order performance in three individuals with post-stroke language and verbal WM disorders (hereafter persons with aphasia, PWAs) were assessed using recognition and recall tasks for verbal and visuospatial WM, as well as error analyses in spoken and written production tasks to assess whether there was a tendency to produce the correct phonemes/letters in the wrong order. One PWA exhibited domain-specific serial order deficits in verbal and visuospatial WM. The PWA with verbal serial order WM deficit made more serial order errors than expected by chance in both repetition and writing-to-dictation tasks, whereas the other two PWAs showed no serial order deficits in verbal WM and production tasks. These findings suggest separable serial order systems for verbal and visuospatial WM and a shared system for serial order processing in verbal WM and word production. Implications for the domain-generality of WM, its connection to language production, and serial order processing across cognitive functionssc are discussed.

Patients with schizophrenia exhibit impairments in working memory that often appear in attenuated form in persons at high risk for the illness. The authors hypothesized that deviations in task-related brain activation and deactivation would occur in persons with an at-risk mental state performing a working memory task that entailed the maintenance and manipulation of letters. Participants at ultra high risk for developing psychosis (N=60), identified using the Comprehensive Assessment of At-Risk Mental States, and healthy comparison subjects (N=38) 14 to 29 years of age underwent functional MRI while performing a verbal working memory task. Group differences in brain activation were identified using analysis of covariance. The two groups did not show significant differences in speed or accuracy of performance, even after accounting for differences in education. Irrespective of task condition, at-risk participants exhibited significantly less activation than healthy comparison subjects in the left anterior insula. During letter manipulation, at-risk persons exhibited greater task-related deactivation within the default-mode network than comparison subjects. Region-of-interest analysis in the at-risk group revealed significantly greater right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex activation during manipulation of letters. Despite comparable behavioral performance, at-risk participants performing a verbal working memory task exhibited altered brain activation compared with healthy subjects. These findings demonstrate an altered pattern of brain activation in at-risk persons that contains elements of reduced function as well as compensation.

Auditory warnings have been shown to interfere with verbal working memory. However, the impact of different types of auditory warnings on working memory tasks must be further researched. This study investigated how different kinds of auditory warnings interfered with verbal and spatial working memory. Experiment 1 tested the potential interference of auditory warnings with verbal working memory. Experiment 2 tested the potential interference of auditory warnings with spatial working memory. Both experiments used a 3 × 3 mixed design: auditory warning type (auditory icons, earcons, or spearcons) was between groups, and task condition (no-warning, identify-warning, or ignore-warning) was within groups. In Experiment 1, earcons and spearcons but not auditory icons worsened the performance on the verbal serial recall task in the identify-warning condition, compared with that in the no-warning or ignore-warning conditions. In Experiment 2, only identifying earcons worsened the performance on the location recall task compared with performance without auditory warnings or when auditory warnings were ignored. Results are discussed from the perspective of working memory resource interference, and their practical application in the selection and design of auditory warning signals is involved.

Rational number understanding is a critical building block for success in more advanced mathematics; however, how rational number magnitudes are conceptualized is not fully understood. In the current study, we used a dual-task working memory (WM) interference paradigm to investigate the dominant type of strategy (i.e., requiring verbal WM resources vs. requiring primarily visuospatial WM resources) used by adults when processing rational number magnitudes presented in both decimal and fraction notation. Analyses revealed no significant differences in involvement of verbal and visuospatial WM, regardless of notation (fractions vs. decimals), indicating that adults rely upon a mix of strategies and WM resources when processing rational number magnitudes. However, this pattern interacted with algebra ability such that those performing better on the algebra assessment relied upon both verbal and visuospatial WM when engaging in rational number comparisons, whereas rational number performance by adults with low algebra fluency was affected only by a simultaneous verbal WM task. Together, results support previous work implicating the involvement of WM resources in rational number processing and is the first study to indicate that the involvement of both verbal and visuospatial WM, as opposed to relying primarily on verbal WM, when processing rational number magnitudes may be indicative of higher mathematical proficiency in the domain of algebra. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2017 APA, all rights reserved)

Event Abstract Back to Event A Common Serial Order Mechanism for Verbal Working Memory and Language Production: Evidence from Aphasia Yingxue Tian1*, Heather R. Dial2, Randi Martin1 and Simon Fischer-Baum1 1 Rice University, United States 2 University of Texas at Austin, United States Serial order information is critical in our daily life, from recalling a phone number, or producing phonemes when saying a word, or writing letters when spelling. In the domain of working memory (WM), there is clear evidence for a dissociation of item-identity and serial-order WM (Majerus, 2018). The current study tests two hypotheses about verbal serial order working memory (SOWM). First, that there is a single SOWM capacity that is involved in both verbal and nonverbal WM. Second, that there is a common order processing capacity shared between verbal WM and language production. Both hypotheses are addressed in a multiple-case study approach, looking at patterns of associations and dissociations in serial order performance in patients with memory and language impairments following stroke. Three chronic aphasic patients (M.B., E.V., and S.H.) were identified with impaired forward and backward digit span (span < 4). They were then tested on verbal WM, including item probe (IP), order probe (OP), and serial reconstruction (SRC). Evidence of SOWM impairments includes poor performance on SRC and impaired OP relative to IP (henceforth referred to as adjusted order span). Patient M.B. exhibited impaired verbal SOWM with both digits (SRC = 3.08) and letters (SRC = 2.45, p’s < .05) as well as with the probe tasks (verbal adjusted order span = 50%, p = .03) when compared to ten age- and education-matched control subjects, whereas the other two patients showed no evidence of a verbal SOWM impairment. To test the single SOWM hypothesis, patients were given the same WM battery with nonverbal materials (visuospatial locations). None of the patients showed nonverbal SOWM impairments. Most critically, M.B. exhibited SOWM deficit in the verbal domain but not the nonverbal domain (SRC = 5.33, nonverbal adjusted order span = 59%, p’s > .05). This dissociation between verbal and nonverbal SOWM systems provides clear evidence against the single SOWM hypothesis. To test the hypothesis that verbal SOWM and language production share a common order processing capacity, we next analyzed phoneme/grapheme errors in a corpus of repetition and spelling tasks. Errors in these tasks were categorized into item, order, and omission errors. M.B. produced significantly more phoneme and grapheme order errors than would be expected by chance (p’s < .001 in Monte Carlo simulation), whereas the other two patients did not have a tendency to make order errors in these tasks. The association between M.B.’s order impairment in verbal WM, spoken production and spelling, along with the fact that E.V. and S.H. do not show order impairments in any of those domains, suggests a common serial order mechanism. In sum, our multiple-case study suggests a common mechanism for serial order between verbal WM and the language production system that is distinct from the serial order mechanism used in nonverbal WM. References Majerus, S. (2018). Verbal working memory and the phonological buffer: The question of serial order. Cortex. Keywords: cognitive neuropsychology, Multiple-case, Language production, working memory, serial order Conference: Academy of Aphasia 57th Annual Meeting, Macau, Macao, SAR China, 27 Oct - 29 Oct, 2019. Presentation Type: Poster presentation Topic: Eligible for student award Citation: Tian Y, Dial HR, Martin R and Fischer-Baum S (2019). A Common Serial Order Mechanism for Verbal Working Memory and Language Production: Evidence from Aphasia. Front. Hum. Neurosci. Conference Abstract: Academy of Aphasia 57th Annual Meeting. doi: 10.3389/conf.fnhum.2019.01.00113 Copyright: The abstracts in this collection have not been subject to any Frontiers peer review or checks, and are not endorsed by Frontiers. They are made available through the Frontiers publishing platform as a service to conference organizers and presenters. The copyright in the individual abstracts is owned by the author of each abstract or his/her employer unless otherwise stated. Each abstract, as well as the collection of abstracts, are published under a Creative Commons CC-BY 4.0 (attribution) licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) and may thus be reproduced, translated, adapted and be the subject of derivative works provided the authors and Frontiers are attributed. For Frontiers’ terms and conditions please see https://www.frontiersin.org/legal/terms-and-conditions. Received: 06 May 2019; Published Online: 09 Oct 2019. * Correspondence: Mx. Yingxue Tian, Rice University, Houston, United States, yingxue.tian@rice.edu Login Required This action requires you to be registered with Frontiers and logged in. To register or login click here. Abstract Info Abstract The Authors in Frontiers Yingxue Tian Heather R Dial Randi Martin Simon Fischer-Baum Google Yingxue Tian Heather R Dial Randi Martin Simon Fischer-Baum Google Scholar Yingxue Tian Heather R Dial Randi Martin Simon Fischer-Baum PubMed Yingxue Tian Heather R Dial Randi Martin Simon Fischer-Baum Related Article in Frontiers Google Scholar PubMed Abstract Close Back to top Javascript is disabled. Please enable Javascript in your browser settings in order to see all the content on this page.

The present study aimed to examine how visual skills, verbal working memory, visuospatial working memory, and other general cognitive skills (inhibitory control, attention, and decision speed) were simultaneously correlated with the early acquisition of reading among kindergarten children. A total of 99 Chinese children were tested individually on the Chinese character recognition task, the block design task, the digit span task, the visuospatial sketchpad task, the continuous performance task (CPT), the flanker task, and the choice reaction time task. The results showed that visual skills and working memory accounted for 15% of the unique variance in character reading, whereas other general cognitive skills, including decision speed, inhibitory control and attention, did not significantly explain the variance in character reading when visual skills and working memory were considered. Specifically, verbal working memory, rather than visuospatial working memory, explained the unique variance in children's learning of character reading. These findings highlighted that visual skills and verbal working memory were among the most important precursors of reading in children at the beginning stage of learning Chinese characters.

Until now, working memory training has not reached sufficient evidence as effective treatment for ADHD core symptoms in children with ADHD; for young children with ADHD, no studies are available. To this end, a triple-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study was designed to assess the efficacy of Cogmed Working Memory Training (CWMT) in young children with ADHD. Fifty-one children (5-7years) with a DSM-IV-TR diagnosis of ADHD (without current psychotropic medication) were randomly assigned to the active (adaptive) or placebo (nonadaptive) training condition for 25 sessions during 5 weeks. The compliance criterion (>20 sessions) was met for 47 children. The primary outcome measure concerned the core behavioural symptoms of ADHD, measured with the ADHD Rating Scale IV (ADHD-RS). Secondary outcome measures were neurocognitive functioning, daily executive functioning, and global clinical functioning. The influence of the increase in difficulty level (Index-Improvement) for the treatment group was also analysed. Clinical trial registration information - 'Working Memory Training in Young ADHD Children'; www.clinicaltrials.gov; NCT00819611. A significant improvement in favour of the active condition was found on a verbal working memory task (p=.041; adapted Digit Span WISC-III, backward condition). However, it did not survive correction for multiple testing. No significant treatment effect on any of the primary or other secondary outcome measurements was found. The Index-Improvement significantly contributed to ADHD-RS and the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, both rated by the teacher, but revealed no significant group difference. This study failed to find robust evidence for benefits of CMWT over the placebo training on behavioural symptoms, neurocognitive, daily executive, and global clinical functioning in young children with ADHD.

Language acquisition strongly predicts executive functioning (EF) in early childhood in typical development and in children with Down syndrome (DS). Both language and EF are critical contributors to later positive social and academic outcomes yet are often areas of concern in children with DS. Despite the wider availability of interventions targeting language development in DS, no efforts have been made to understand how these interventions may influence the development of EF in this population. This study examined secondary data from 76 preschoolers with DS collected as part of a randomised waitlist control trial of an early social communication intervention (JASPER-EMT). Children's EF skills were measured using the BRIEF-P, at three timepoints over 6months. Linear regression was used to examine the baseline relationship between child characteristics and the three indices of the BRIEF-P: Emergent Metacognition, Flexibility and Inhibitory Self-Control. Linear mixed effects models were used to estimate change across the three indices of the BRIEF-P and whether that change was moderated by treatment. Children in this sample exhibited an uneven profile of EF at baseline, with relative strengths in the Flexibility Index and the Inhibitory Self-Control Index, and relative weaknesses in the Emerging Metacognition Index. Chronological age was associated with all indices at baseline (all P<0.05). Children in the intervention group exhibited improvements in the Flexibility Index from entry to exit (3months later) compared with the control, although this treatment effect did not maintain at the follow up at 6months. Baseline EF profiles of children were consistent with findings of other studies with children with DS. Longitudinal findings suggest that behavioural interventions targeting language may have positive collateral effects on certain EF skills, however these effects may be transitory without ongoing support. These findings illustrate both the need for further exploration of the impact of early language interventions on EF abilities and the malleability of certain EF domains in young children with DS.

SYNOPSIS Objective. We do not know which maternal characteristics and aspects of the home environment are associated with more favorable executive function (EF) development in understudied Global South populations. The current study attempts to address this research gap. Design. A sample of 4,464 mother—child dyads was followed over 8 years. Maternal personality and cognitive abilities were assessed at child age 2.7 years, parental emotional support and the home learning environment at child age 4.8 years, and maternal parenting stress and children’s verbal working memory (Backwards Digit Span), and global EFs (Hearts and Flowers tasks) at child age 10.5 years. Generalized linear model analyses were conducted to examine whether maternal characteristics and the home environment during early childhood predicted verbal working memory and global EFs in middle childhood, after controlling for sociodemographic family characteristics. Results. Maternal attention and working memory, maternal vocabulary, and the home learning environment were positively associated with children’s verbal working memory, whereas maternal parenting stress was negatively associated with children’s verbal working memory. Maternal attention and memory, as well as parental emotional support, showed positive associations, whereas maternal neuroticism, the home learning environment, and maternal parenting stress showed negative associations with children’s global EFs. Conclusions. Maternal characteristics and the home environment during early childhood play specific roles in children’s EF skills across middle childhood in Chilean elementary school children in ways that might guide researchers, practitioners, and policymakers in designing prevention or intervention programs.

Developmental research provides considerable evidence of a strong relationship between verbal and visuospatial working memory (WM) and mathematics ability across age groups. However, little is known about how components of WM (i.e., short-term storage, processing speed, the central executive) might relate to mathematics sub-categories and how these change as children develop. This study aimed to identify developmental changes in relationships between components of verbal and visuospatial WM and specific mathematics abilities. Children (n = 117) were recruited from four UK schools across three age groups (7-8 years; 9-10 years; and 14-15 years). Children's verbal and visuospatial short-term storage, processing speed, and central executive abilities were assessed. Age-based changes in the contributions from these abilities to performance on mathematics sub-categories were examined. When WM was examined both as an amalgamation of its component parts, and individually, relationships with mathematics were more evident in younger children compared to the middle and older age groups. However, when unique variance was examined for each WM predictor (controlling for the other components), many of those relationships disappeared. Relationships with processing speed and the central executive were found to be more evident in the older age groups. The WM-mathematics relationship changes dependent on age and mathematical sub-component. Overlap in individual WM abilities in younger children, compared to reliance on the central executive and processing speed in older children, suggests a set of fluid resources important in mathematics learning in younger children but separating out as children grow older.