Autoliv's Road to Globalization

<div class="htmlview paragraph">Dowty Aerospace was faced with the problems of maintaining high output at low cost. Production schedules did not allow delays in required plating. With the plating shop located remote from the production area, it was apparent some action had to be taken to insure increased workloads could continue to be met within the scheduled timeframe.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph"><b>DOWTY AEROSPACE IS A WORLD LEADER</b> in aerospace and defense systems engineering. Dowty companies are well known for the manufacturer of landing gears, propellers, engine fuel controls, flying controls, avionics, general hydraulics, seals, electronic controls and communications. In addition to this manufacturing, Dowty offers repair, overhaul, test and support facilities in all these fields. Dowty also provides full support for other manufacturer's equipment. </div> <div class="htmlview paragraph"> <div class="graphic-wrapper"><img class="article-figure figure" src="890931_fig0001.jpg" alt="No Caption Available"/></div> </div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Dowty Aerospace Corporation, Product Support Division is located in Sterling, Virginia approximately five miles north of Dulles International Airport. This location includes the corporate offices, equipment and product support for repair and overhaul of components of some 40 different aircraft.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The Dowty plating shop was located in leased facilities approximately seven miles from Corporate headquarters. The leased facilities were not conductive to efficient process layout and utilization for plating. All plating tanks sat on the floor resulting in uneven lip height based on depth of tank. The lack of an overhead material handling system created inefficient parts handling requirements and separation of the plating facility from the machining operation increased transportation costs.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">While the quality of plating was excellent and careful planning and coordination allowed meeting production schedules, future growth and flexibility could best be met with the plating shop located closer to the machine shop facilities.</div>

<div class="section abstract"> <div class="htmlview paragraph">This SAE Standard covers complete general and dimensional specifications for 37 degree flared and flareless types of hydraulic tube fittings and O-ring plugs. Also included are pipe fittings and adapter unions for use in conjunction with these tube fittings. These fittings are intended for general application in hydraulic systems on industrial equipment and commercial products.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">These fittings are capable of providing leak-proof, full-flow connections in hydraulic systems operating at working pressures as specified in SAE J1065, “Pressure Ratings for Hydraulic Tubing and Fittings.”</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Since many factors influence the pressure at which a hydraulic system will or will not perform satisfactorily, the values shown in SAE J1065 should not be construed as a guaranteed minimum.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">For any application, it is recommended that sufficient testing be conducted and reviewed by both the user and fitting manufacturer to assure that performance levels will be safe and satisfactory.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The standard is divided into six sections as follows:</div> </div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">The introduction of the Worldwide Harmonised Light Vehicles Test Procedure (WLTP) and Real Driving Emissions (RDE) test requirements have put increased strain on vehicle and engine performance as well as the development of advanced engine technologies and emissions mitigation strategies. This requirement for increased development is a direct result of the need for new vehicles to comply with present and emerging emissions standards across an extended range of boundary conditions that include ambient temperature, altitude and driving style.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">To reduce the significant number of on-road test permutations that would ordinarily be required to validate a given vehicle across the defined RDE boundary conditions, a Road to Rig (R2R) development approach known as RDE Plus (RDE+) is being evolved at HORIBA MIRA. This will enable real world driving scenarios to be developed and deployed much further upstream during the development lifecycle of the vehicle and engine using aspects of virtual calibration; the aim being to significantly reduce vehicle and engine development costs and associated timescales.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">On-road RDE data is presented in this paper from vehicles of different powertrain technologies gathered from several European test locations under conditions representing the boundaries defined by the RDE protocol. Upon gathering a combination of vehicle CANBus, custom instrumentation and emissions (Portable Emissions Measurement System (PEMS)) data, recorded RDE routes were replicated on a chassis dynamometer with a view of developing a standardised practical approach to replicate RDE tests in the laboratory environment.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Lab tests were performed at HORIBA MIRA in the Advanced Emissions Test Centre (AETC) with the aim of defining a chassis dynamometer test methodology suitable for different powertrain technologies that results in accurate representations of on-road conditions with respect to vehicle load, ambient temperature, altitude and emissions.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Following the road to chassis dynamometer correlation, the vehicle engines will be installed on an engine dynamometer with the objective of developing a suite of “worst case” RDE cycles using an Engine-in-the-Loop (EiL) format complemented with a Design of Experiments (DoE) type mapping approach. These “worst case” cycles, most likely operating near to or at the RDE boundary condition limits, can then be adopted for engine and vehicle development purposes as well as providing evidence of complete RDE compliance. The methodology to develop this EiL strategy in combination with a detailed overview of RDE+ project as a whole is presented in this paper.</div></div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">It is well known how local and global environment issues as well as the consumption and supply of energy are major challenges for the future of our planet.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Just to give an example, transports in Europe today rely for 98% on oil.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Internal combustion engines today are a major cause of global warming and local pollution that causes the closing of most city centres in Europe.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Fuel cells have the potential to replace the conventional power generation technologies mainly promising efficiency improvements which could lead to energy saving and reduction of greenhouse gas emission.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">In 2001, CRF (FIAT research center) started together with Nuvera Fuel Cells europe Srl a project to evaluate the exploitation of FC inside the Seicento car, studying different levels of hybridisation: from an APU range extender to a full power fuel cell.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The objective of this paper is to give an overview of the performance evolution of the fuel cell powertrain used in the Seicento prototypes and their integration inside the vehicle power plant. In particular the paper highlights the effectiveness and robustness of the system mainly related to the air and water management developed by CRF and NUVERA. The paper also reports comparison of the Seicento fuel cell vehicle with road testing results among different electric vehicles developed by CRF.</div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">The present paper introduces the Free Piston Linear Generator (FPLG) - a compact electricity generation unit, which is being developed at the German Aerospace Center (DLR). It is designed as a free-piston combustion engine with integrated linear generator. This combination allows for highly efficient conversion of the chemical energy stored in a fuel to electrical energy.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">By combining a two stroke combustion chamber, a linear alternator and an adjustable gas spring the engine design results in a compact package. In comparison to conventional combustion engines, additional degrees of freedom are available for controlling the combustion process. In this context efficiency advantages are expected due to the missing mechanical link to a crank which leads to flexibility in terms of stroke and compression ratio.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Applied as a range-extender-unit, the system provides additional electric energy to electric vehicles in case of discharged batteries. In addition to this automotive application, the FPLG can be used as an auxiliary power unit for example in aircrafts as well as in decentralized combined heat and power plants (CHP).</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">A step-by-step development strategy leading to the first overall FPLG system has been pursued. In the past years, the DLR has developed and experimentally verified several demonstrator prototypes for all necessary subsystems. Development systems comprising of several of the subsystems and (in some cases) of an auxiliary hydraulic actuator have been investigated.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Free piston specific challenges have to be addressed, e.g. increased requirements concerning steadiness of the combustion process. In addition to the hardware development, active control of piston motion is a major technological challenge. Model based algorithms for this purpose have been developed and implemented on a real time system. Applied to one of the development systems, their performance is evaluated in experiments.</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">In response to a growing need for a practical and technically valid method for measuring exhaust sound pressure levels (SPL) of on-highway motorcycles, the SAE Motorcycle Technical Steering Committee has developed Surface Vehicle Recommended Practice J2825<sup><span class="xref">1</span></sup>, “Measurement of Exhaust Sound Pressure Levels of Stationary On-Highway Motorcycles,” which includes a new stationary sound test procedure and recommendations for limit values. Key goals of the development process included: minimal equipment requirements, ease of implementation by non-technical personnel, and consistency with the federal EPA requirements; in particular, vehicles compliant with the EPA requirements should not fail when assessed using J2825.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Development of the recommended practice involved a comprehensive field study of 25 motorcycles and 76 different exhaust systems, ranging from relatively quiet OEM systems to unbaffled, aftermarket exhaust systems. For the various motorcycle/exhaust system configurations, SPL measurements were made using the EPA pass-by procedure and several different stationary measurement methods. Correlations between the results obtained by these different methods were studied for the entire subject group (combinations of motorcycle and exhaust system) as well as for sub-groups based on motorcycle engine configuration.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Of the stationary measurement methods explored; the most reliable results were obtained when the SPL was measured 20 inches from the tailpipe outlet. On the basis of engine configuration, stationary test results were correlated with results measured using the wide-open throttle, EPA pass-by procedure. For four-cylinder motorcycles, the best correlation was obtained at 5000 rpm; for all other engine types the best correlation was obtained at 2000 rpm. Satisfactory results were also obtained using idle SPL measurement.</div></div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">This summary covers the developments from 2006 in diesel regulations, engine combustion, and NOx and PM remediation.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Regulatory developments are now focused on Europe, where light-duty Euro 5 and 6 regulations have been proposed for 2009 and 2014, respectively. The regulations are lass stringent than those in the US, but options exist for adopting European vehicles for the US market. Europe is just beginning to look at heavy-duty regulations for 2012 and beyond.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Engines are making very impressive progress, with clean combustion strategies in active development mainly for US light-duty application. Heavy-duty research engines are more focused on traditional approaches, and will provide numerous engine/aftertreatment options for hitting the tight US 2010 regulations.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">NOx control is focusing on SCR (selective catalytic reduction) for diverse applications. Focus is on cold operation, durability, secondary emissions, and system optimization. Aged LNTs (lean NOx traps) are effective up to about 60-70% deNOx efficiency, and are being considered for light-duty and some light heavy-duty applications. There is growing interest in supplementing LNT performance with integrated SCR, which utilizes ammonia generated in the LNT during rich regenerations.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Diesel particulate filter technology is in a state of optimization and cost reduction. Very sophisticated management strategies are being utilized, which open up options for new filter materials and alternative system architectures. Secondary emissions issues are emerging and are being addressed.</div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Due to the recent anti-pollution policies, the performance increase in Spark Ignition (SI) engines is currently under the focus of automotive manufacturers. This trend drives control systems designers to investigate accurate solutions and build more sophisticated algorithms to increase the efficiency of this kind of engines.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The development of a control strategy is composed of several phases and steps, and the first part of such process is typically spent in defining and investigating the logic of the strategy. During this phase it is often useful to have a light engine simulator, which allows to have robust synthetic combustion data with a low calibration and computational effort.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">In the first part of this paper, a description of the control-oriented ANalytical Engine SIMulator (ANESIM) is carried out. The latest results about the zero-dimensional knock model presented in a previous paper and some interesting analytical equations which define the main mean-combustion indexes trends (for example maximum in-cylinder pressure, or Pmax, 50 percent fuel mass fraction burned angle, or MFB50, Indicated Mean Effective Pressure, or IMEP) as functions of engine speed and load are analyzed for the entire engine operating range. A detailed sensitivity analysis to the fitting order is presented and the final formulas are showed and used for the calibration.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The second part focuses on the model implementation in a Simulink environment and the resulting validation process of the analytic simulator carried out on a Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI) Turbo Charged (TC) engine. ANESIM performance is then tested by comparing the calculated and the experimental data, for both steady state and transient operating conditions.</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Modern concepts of downsized DI gasoline engines set up high requirements on the injection system to meet the emission targets. The fundamental knowledge and understanding of spray propagation physics are essential for the development of nozzles and injection strategies, due to reduced displacements in combination with the continuing trend of elevated fuel pressures.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">A detailed analysis of micro- and macroscopic spray parameters was carried out using a multihole solenoid driven DI injector. The measurements were performed in a continuously scavenged pressure chamber with full optical access. Fuel pressure up to 38MPa and backpressures in a range from 0.03 - 0.2 MPa were varied. Optical investigations were done by Shadowgraphy imaging and Phase Doppler Anemometry.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The combination of micro- and macroscopic spray results are used to discuss the propagation behaviour of gasoline spray. Against conventional opinions it could be demonstrated that gasoline spray is decelerated at the spray front due to air interactions, even under low gas density conditions. Temporal velocity gradients between the spray front and the following main spray cause droplet overtaking processes. These affect shear zone driven recirculation areas located at the spray front.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Reduced penetration values can be achieved by shortening the injection duration. Due to the stopped mass flow and momentum, overtaking processes will stop and penetration stagnates in a constant dimension.</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">This paper presents the design, implementation, and performance evaluation of a reduced complexity algorithm for a predictive control which is based on our previously published SAE paper (2021-01-0225) titled, “Model Predictive Control for Engine Thermal Management System.” That paper presented a model predictive control (MPC) design concept and demonstrated energy efficiency improvements by enabling engine pre-cooling based on GPS/Navigation data to recognize future vehicle speed limit and road grade in anticipation of high engine load demand.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">When compared to conventional control, the predictive control demonstrated considerable energy and fuel savings due to delayed timing of both knock mitigation and activation of radiator cooling fan during high engine load demand. However, this predictive control strategy is much more complicated due to its highly coupled nonlinear behavior. Also, in reality, the previous developed MPC strategies are limited to the computational resources in engine control units (ECU). Therefore, to address these challenges, a reduced-complexity MPC controller for the powertrain thermal system is developed in this paper where, by “reduced-complexity,” it is meant that the MPC controller achieves control objectives and to be executed on a modern ECU within a computation budget.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">To maximize fuel economy, one of the key control logics in the previously published SAE paper is to use estimated radiator outlet coolant temperature as an indicator to determine when to lower the target engine coolant temperature. Since the heat transfer coefficients (HTC) of the thermal system are time varying, the computation load is high if the inputs to the plant models are physics-based. Therefore, lookup table (LUT)-based and mean value model (MVM) modeling approaches are developed and combined in order to reduce computational burden.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The complexity reduction is obtained via lookup tables and mean value models, which lightens the computational load of the algorithm with a minimal loss in precision. Experimental results showed that the proposed approach is able to deliver performance similar to originally proposed approaches. At the same time, the proposed algorithm is able to cut the computational complexity of the physics-based algorithm by an 18% factor.</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">This paper present a unique and comprehensive design process that has been pilot tested to assure that future automotive cockpit systems are well integrated, cost effective and they achieve superior ergonomics performance. With ever increasing possibilities of new technological feature content and tremendous cost pressures, the auto manufacturers have a challenging task to provide the customers with the latest features at affordable costs in shorter design cycles. The Automotive Cockpit Enablers (ACE) team consisting of seven automotive suppliers and two universities has created a unique process to approach the problem.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The process consists of a series of steps and inter-workings of three cross-functional teams. The steps involve: 1) Review Manufacturer’s Program Assumptions and Brand Strategy, 2) Identify Product Content and Features, 3) Develop Optimum Seating Package, 4) Determine Available Space for Controls and Displays, 5) Develop Design Concepts and BICEPS (Best in class engineering product system) Input. 6) Develop Alternative Control and Display Layouts with Ergonomics Scores, 7) Develop Working Models of Driver Interfaces for Simulator Evaluations, 8) Conduct Evaluation Tests in the Driving Simulator Using Representative Drivers, 9) Make Changes to the Design as Necessary Based on the Simulator Results [Repeat steps 5 through 9 as needed], 10) Develop Cost Models from Selected Prototypes, 11) Develop Supporting System Architecture, 12) Conduct Additional Validation Tests as Needed (may use prototyped instrumentation in actual vehicles on public roads for concept validation), 13) Conduct Validation Tests for Brand Sensory Perceptions for Materials, Feel, Harmony/ Craftsmanship Issues Using Representative Subjects, 14) Conduct Evaluations of Visual Characteristics, 15) Conduct a Comprehensive Ergonomics Evaluation.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The paper provides descriptions, inputs and outputs of the above steps along with inter-workings of the mechanical, electrical and HMI (Human Machine Interface) integration teams that support the process, and some details and results of the driving simulator studies that provide early evaluation of various HMI concepts.</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Autonomous vehicle motion planning and control are vital components of next-generation intelligent transportation systems. Recent advances in both data- and physical model-driven methods have improved driving performance, yet current technologies still fall short of achieving human-level driving in complex, dynamic traffic scenarios. Key challenges include developing safe, efficient, and human-like motion planning strategies that can adapt to unpredictable environments. Data-driven approaches leverage deep neural networks to learn from extensive datasets, offering promising avenues for intelligent decision-making. However, these methods face issues such as covariate shift in imitation learning and difficulties in designing robust reward functions. In contrast, conventional physical model-driven techniques use rigorous mathematical formulations to generate optimal trajectories and handle dynamic constraints.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph"><b>Hybrid Data- and Physical Model-Driven Safe and Intelligent Motion Planning and Control for Autonomous Vehicles</b> presents a hybrid framework that combines data-driven insights with the robustness of physical models. It identifies key challenges in fusing these disparate methods and outlines potential solutions in developing robust fusion strategies, establishing generalized mixed dynamics models, and designing multi-objective robust control systems. In addition, the report explores future research directions to enhance learning efficiency, improve adaptability to rare but critical scenarios, and ultimately pave the way for secure, efficient, and human-like autonomous driving systems.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph"><a href="https://www.sae.org/publications/edge-research-reports" target="_blank">Click here to access the full SAE EDGE</a><sup>TM</sup><a href="https://www.sae.org/publications/edge-research-reports" target="_blank"> Research Report portfolio.</a></div></div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph"><b>I</b>N a discussion of the difficulties that are being overcome in converting automotive plants to the production of war equipment with virtually no new machine tools, Mr. Geschelin emphasizes the difference between the production requirements of an automobile engine and a modern airplane engine by pointing out that:</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The connecting rod of the Allison airplane engine requires 93 operations compared with 25 for the Cadillac passenger-car engine; the Allison crankshaft requires 80 operations, the Cadillac crankshaft 62; and the Allison cylinder block has 17 pieces compared with a single block for the Cadillac engine.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">After calling production know-how, “the major contribution of the automotive industry,” Mr. Geschelin draws attention to the fact that the automotive industry also is largely responsible for bringing American production machinery to its present high state of development. Without the automotive industry's demand for mass production and encouragement of invention, he contends, the machine-tool industry would never have reached its present stage of development and expansion. He goes on to show definitely how the industry has fostered advancement in machine tools, metallurgy, materials handling, surface finish, gear practice, heat-treatment, and shot blasting.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">In the remainder of his paper the author explains - naming product, company, process, and machine - how automotive mass-production methods are influencing the production of such war equipment as airplane engines, military airplanes, Ordnance materiel, and military vehicles.</div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">At part load and wide open throttle operation with stratified charge and lean mixture conditions the Direct Injection Spark Ignition (DISI) engine offers similar efficiency levels compared to compression ignition engines</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The present paper reports on results of recent studies on the impact of the in-cylinder processes in DISI engines e. g. the injection, the in-cylinder flow, the mixture preparation and the ignition on the combustion, the energy conversion and the exhaust emission behavior. The analyses of the spray behavior, of the in-cylinder flow during compression as well as of the flame propagation have been carried out applying advanced optical measurement techniques. The results enable a targeted optimization of the combustion process with respect to engine efficiency and exhaust emissions. The benefits of an increase in fuel injection pressures up to 100 MPa are discussed. The investigations have been mainly performed in a single cylinder research engine featuring a spray-guided injection process with central injector location. The considered operating range includes part load conditions with both stratified and homogeneous mixture preparation as well as full load operation with homogeneous mixture preparation. The results obtained from the research work are very promising and hence a 4-cylinder production engine is modified to operate with a suitable injection system with rail pressures in the range of 50 MPa to 60 MPa.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Additionally, irregular combustion events in the full load regime such as knocking combustion and low speed pre-ignition have been investigated in a 4-cylinder DISI production engine. The results support the development of mitigation strategies for both engine knock and low speed pre-ignition (LSPI).</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">The leaf spring manufacturer must supply high quality raw material at required strength for ensuring endurance rig tests. It's very important to maintain both inside and surface cleanliness of raw material.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">This study presents micro crack effects on material surface by evaluating residual stress values. Residual stress values on leaf springs are measured with X-ray diffractometer and different residual stress values are classified on the same raw material batch which have also the same material failures.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Finally, micro cracks are measured in metrics. Micro crack standardization is performed considering the residual stress values and rig tests. The outputs in metrics which correlated with endurance rig tests can be taken as reference by the manufacturers of leaf spring and original equipment manufacturers.</div></div>