Aviation and Telecommunications in the Digital World

The Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs) of Annex 16 Vol. II, Chicago Convention 1944, are created and adopted by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), for the purpose of regulating aircraft emission in the civil aviation sector. The creation of ICAO standard and Recommended Practices on aviation environment came up in 1981, following the declaration in Article 2(2) of Kyoto protocol to UNFCCC that developed countries of (Annex I parties), shall pursue limitation or reduction of emission of greenhouse gases from aviation by working through the international civil aviation organization (ICAO). However, while the SARPS have been recognized by ICAO and the contracting states as the sole international regulations for reduction of aviation emission, the SARPs are also known to have some limitations on reduction of aviation emission. This paper therefore examines the capacity of SARPs Annex 16 Vol II of Chicago Convention 1944 to make effective reduction in international reduction of aviation emission for protection of environment. This involves identifying the strength and limitations of ICAO SARPs on reduction of aviation emission as well as making recommendations for improved performance. A qualitative-doctrinal research approach is adopted where by the bulk of analysis on the study is based on information from library research materials the study concludes the ICAO SARPs have more limitations than strength and would require some improvement for achieving a more effective reduction in aviation emission.

Safety in aviation activities has always been one of the overriding considerations of ICAO. Article 44 of the Chicago Convention charges ICAO with ensuring the safe and orderly growth of international civil aviation throughout the world. From a regulatory perspective, ICAO’s role is to provide procedures and guidance for the safe conduct of international aircraft operations and to foster the planning and development of air transport. This is largely achieved by developing standards and recommended practices (SARPs), which are contained in Annexes to the Chicago Convention and reflect the best operational experience of member states. As stated in ICAO Doc 9774 (Manual on Certification of Aerodromes) Chapter 3 Section B, the specifications in ICAO Annex 14, Vol. 1 Aerodrome Design and Operations, unless otherwise indicated in a particular context, apply to all aerodromes open to public use in accordance with the provisions of Article 15 of the Convention on International Civil Aviation. The responsibility to ensure safety and order at all aerodromes open to public use under their jurisdiction rests with states. Importantly, member states have the prerogative of determining the structure of civil aviation within their borders, including regulation. While the requirement for aerodrome certification may not be applied by a state to all aerodromes under its jurisdiction, aerodromes used for international operations should not be exempted from the requirement. To this end, states need to establish appropriate criteria and then ensure that the criteria are actually implemented. Some states, however, do not refer only to international operations and it is for this reason that all the specific regulatory criteria need to be well understood, particularly where a ‘trigger point’ for certification may be reached. This paper aims to highlight the significance of aerodrome certification, not just in terms of overall compliance, but also being mindful to take practicable approaches to managing risk effectively, particularly at small and emerging airports across the globe. In context, this paper defines ‘small’ and ‘emerging’ airports as those airports with around 1 million passengers per year or those with greater numbers but going through a period of significant exponential growth given their current economic positioning.

The increasing utilization of outer space has brought about unprecedented opportunities and potential security challenges. The development of anti-satellite (ASAT) weapons has raised concerns about the militarization of space and the potential for conflict. This research examines the legal framework governing ASAT weapons under international space law, focusing on the Outer Space Treaty (OST) and the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) Radio Regulations. It analyzes the limitations of existing legal instruments in addressing the threats posed by ASATs, particularly their potential to generate space debris and disrupt critical satellite infrastructure. This research adopts normative (doctrinal) legal methods by incorporating statutes and conceptual frameworks to analyze primary and secondary legal sources in order to investigate legal standards regarding militarization and disarmament in space. This research highlight that the current legal framework is insufficient to prevent the proliferation and use of ASAT weapons and proposes the development of a new international treaty specifically addressing ASATs. This treaty would provide clearer definitions, stricter regulations, and stronger enforcement mechanisms to ensure the long-term sustainability and security of space activities. This research also explores the role of the ITU in promoting the peaceful and responsible use of outer space through its Radio Regulations and technical expertise. The findings emphasize the need for greater cooperation between the ITU and other international organizations to address the challenges posed by ASAT weapons and ensure the continued benefits of space technology for all humankind.

GSO is an orbit which is approximately 35.786 km from the earth's surface which is strategic for the placement of satellites. Creating justice in the GSO, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) ensures the availability of a number of slots for equatorial countries. In 2002 the phenomenon of privatization and foreign direct investment has changed the share ownership structure in Indonesia. The telecommunications sector was also affected where the Government of Indonesia now only owns 14.29% of PT. Indosat Tbk. (“Indosat”). Qatar Telcom via Ooredo Asia Pte. Ltd. become the majority shareholder of Indosat (65%); while the rest (20.71%) is owned by the public. This article aims to analyze the urgency of the satellite placed in the GSO and propose analyze the impact of privatization of Indosat in space law perspective. The research method used is normative juridical, with secondary data sources. Qualitative analysis with deductive conclusions. Based on the results of the research, it is known that GSO is a limited natural resource which is regulated in article 33 paragraph (2) in the 1973 ITU Convention, the 1994 ITU Constitution and also in the Radio Regulation. In Article 19 paragraph (11 point a) and Article 44 of the Constitution of the ITU which are limited in nature so that they must be used efficiently, rationally and economically, the Papers Satellites proposed by countries will actually be able to reduce the optimization in utilization and are very strategic for placing satellites in the GSO. There are two legal impacts of privatization of Indosat, first Indonesia has lost a slot in GSO. Second, according to the Liability Convention 1972 and Registration Convention 1972, Indonesia has responsibility for a damage caused by the satellite because Indonesia is the registering State. As a solution The Indonesian government can make a policy that requires the origin country where the Indosat shareholder company to take responsibility.

Appendix 1 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation (Chicago Convention of 1944) contains standards and recommended practices (SARPS) concerning medical examination of aviation personnel. It enhances security of the flights and provides the basis for effective national medical examination system, which requires a lot of responsibility and work efforts. The current Russian medical system not only allows to make a decision whether to admit personnel to professional activity, but also provides medical supervision between the examinations, conducts preflight and post-flight check-ups, and creates an effective national basis for such job. This system has been established in Russia long time ago, and has a comprehensive structure. However, there is a need to improve the current legislation and regulations on medical examination of aviation personnel.

Since 2016, when the Federal Communication Com-mission (FCC) initiated its first Processing Round for U.S. Market Access, more than twenty distinct entities applied for authority to launch and operate fixed satellite service (FSS) satellite constellations consisting of more than 70,000 satellites [1]. One of the fundamental challenges, from a technical, regulatory and financial perspective, of these systems is a low-cost, consumer broadband, user terminal solution that complies with today's strict regulations. At the national level, the FCC defines require-ments for satellite systems in its 47 CFR Part 25 Rules. The most pertinent of these regulations for user terminals are: power flux density (25.208), earth station gain mask requirements (25.209), offaxis equivalent isotropically radiated power (EIRP) density envelope requirements (25.218), and requirements for Earth stations in motion (ESIMs) (25.228). These regulations were first developed with geostationary (GSO) systems in mind, and have evolved to consider the increase in number of non-geostationary (NGSO) systems and megaconstellations. At the international level, the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) sets forth power flux density (PFD) and equivalent power density (EPFD) requirements in Article 22 of the Radio Regulations (RR). This work offers an overview of modern phased array user terminal technology (namely analog, digital and hybrid beamforming techniques), today's manufacturers of phased array technology, as well as the national and international regulations with which these devices must comply.

The 18.6–18.8 GHz band is utilized extensively for scientific uses. Passive microwave measurements in this frequency range are critical for weather forecasting and studies of climate and environmental impacts. This band, however, is shared with commercial communication systems that operate under the Fixed Satellite Service (FSS). FSS communication is used mostly for satellite TV broadcasting, and by a small number of Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT) systems. The Radio Regulations of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) limit the level of FSS transmitted powers in order to avoid interference to passive sensors that operate under the Earth Exploration Satellite Service (EESS). However, Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) affecting spaceborne microwave radiometers such as WindSat, AMSR2 and GPM-GMI at 18 GHZ has been observed and documented for several years since 2010. Calculations considering sea surface reflection show that the observed RFI is consistent with or higher than what could be expected even from the limited level of transmitted power from the FSS. The IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society (GRSS) has brought this problem to the attention of the ITU Radiocommunication Sector (ITU-R) Study Groups, in view of impending decisions that could potentially dramatically increase the use of this band by commercial operators. The contributions by IEEE GRSS to ITU-R will be presented and various issues involved will be discussed.

This article discusses the prospect of free- space optical links (FSOLs) in relation to backhaul applications as well as its technology trend, including the recent development of radio on free-space optical links (RoFSOLs). Here, we consider how FSOLs act as useful transport media, focusing on practical experience in mobile backhaul networks. We refer to studies on FSOL conducted by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) from the viewpoint of the possible exploitation of the frequency bands above 3,000 GHz, which are outside the scope of the current Radio Regulations.

This paper presents a comparison of two software tools for technical support in the international frequency coordination of geostationary satellite networks: Visualyse GSO and Sat-Coord. These tools allow the calculation of carrier to noise ratio, carrier to interference ratio, orbital separation arcs and other important parameters described in the radio regulations of the International Telecommunications Union (ITU). In order to better understand the features of these software tools, an overview of the international frequency coordination process for geostationary satellite networks, in planned and non-planned frequency bands is included, as well as general information about the Colombian orbit/Spectrum resource status. The obtained results have been useful for technical studies on coordination of the national Orbit/Spectrum resources, carried out by the Colombian National Spectrum Agency

Radio frequency signal compatibility is the basis of interoperability of the Satellite e-Based Augmentation System (SBAS). SBAS should abide by relative international radio regulations of International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and meet the compatibility requirements of radio frequency signal between the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)/SBAS, in order to avoid negative mutual interference. According to ITU Proposal and related reference and assumptions, the paper made simulation of signal receiving maximum power in the BeiDou Satellite-Based Augmentation System (BDSBAS) global signal coverage. And then, interference of BDSBAS to Global Positioning System (GPS)/WAAS (Wide Area Augmentation System) on L1/L5 bands were calculated and analyzed, with equivalent carrier-to-noise ratio as the evaluation parameter. The result shows that the carrier-to-noise ratio decrease of GPS/WAAS caused by BDSBAS B1C and B2a signals are extremely lower than inter-system interference of GPS/WAAS, and thus can be ignored in practical applications. Therefore, BDSBAS will not cause the service performance degradation of GPS and WAAS.

In the universe of electrotechnical technologies of interest to the various divisions of the IEEE, radio technology is covered by more governmental regulation than almost all the others. This governmental regulation was initiated in an era when the maximum usable frequencies were much lower than today, antennas had little directionality, and most radio communication was expected to be for ships at sea. These early, underlying viewpoints still linger to some extent in national and international radio regulation, even though many new issues have arisen and the frequencies are now very different. For example, the 2019 World Radio Conference of the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) will consider, for the first time, communications in frequencies up to 450 GHz.

Having reliable communications during large-scale emergency situations is of paramount importance in today's world. In particular, broadcasting critical information to both survivors and rescue teams (shelter locations, details of the disaster, regional map information, etc.) is an important component of emergency communications. Since the regular communication channels typically become non-operational in large-scale disasters, a temporary communication infrastructure is needed. Relay networks (e.g., those currently being standardized under IEEE 802.16j) are suitable for such situations in which relay stations may be conveniently positioned in the disaster area in order to expand the coverage of base stations and improve communication reliability. In this article we review the multicast and broadcast services (MBS) mechanism in the current IEEE 802.16j baseline document, which achieves macrodiversity through simultaneous transmissions of the base station and relay stations to the mobile stations. We discuss how it can be used for emergency communications, and propose two different techniques for improving the reliability of MBS in relay networks. Improvements in packet error rate performance are demonstrated through some computer simulations.

Energy-limited devices and connectivity in complicated environments are two main challenges for Internet of Things (IoT)-enabled mobile networks, especially when IoT devices are distributed in a disaster area. Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-enabled simultaneous wireless information and power transfer (SWIPT) is emerging as a promising technique to tackle the above problems. In this article, we establish an emergency communications framework of UAV-enabled SWIPT for IoT networks, where the disaster scenarios are classified into three cases, namely, dense areas, wide areas and emergency areas. First, to realize wireless power transfer for IoT devices in dense areas, a UAV-enabled wireless power transfer system is considered where a UAV acts as a wireless charger and delivers energy to a set of energy receivers. Then, a joint trajectory planning and resource scheduling scheme for a multi-UAVs system is discussed to provide wireless services for IoT devices in wide areas. Furthermore, an intelligent prediction mechanism is designed to predict service requirements (i.e., data transmission and battery charging) of the devices in emergency areas, and accordingly, a dynamic path planning scheme is established to improve the energy efficiency (EE) of the system. Simulation results demonstrate the effectiveness of the above schemes. Finally, potential research directions and challenges are also discussed.

The United States Coast Guard is responsible for the design, procurement, installation, and operation of reference stations, broadcast facilities, monitor sites, and control stations to provide a Differential GPS (DGPS) service for coastal and other critical waterways of the United States. The DGPS service is intended to support a number of applications where system accuracy, reliability, and integrity are all critical to safe and efficient navigation. As part of the design effort, the Coast Guard has analyzed the accuracy, reliability, and integrity requirements of four DGPS applications: harbor and harbor approach navigation, vessel traffic service (VTS) surveillance, aids to navigation (ATON) positioning, and exclusive economic zone (EEZ) surveying. This paper provides an overview of the DGPS design efforts, and describes the analysis methodologies used to derive the DGPS reliability and integrity requirements.

Chapter 10 - Operating: Key Aspects of Deepwater Planning and Project Implementation