Avoidance begets avoidance: A computational account of negative stereotype persistence.

This paper explores the concept of group belongingness and investigates the formation, maintenance, and influencing factors of social identity and group membership. Drawing upon social identity theory, the paper examines the processes involved in the formation of social identity, including social categorization, social identification, and social comparison. It also explores the various factors that influence the formation of social identity, such as personal characteristics, group characteristics, and the social context. Additionally, the paper discusses the importance of maintaining social identity and group membership, as well as the challenges and barriers to this maintenance. Furthermore, it examines the individual, group, and societal factors that influence social identity and group membership. The paper also delves into the different research methods used to investigate social identity and group membership, including quantitative and qualitative approaches. Finally, the implications and applications of understanding group belongingness are discussed, along with future research directions. The findings highlight the significance of fostering group belongingness for individuals and society as a whole.

Background University students' substance abuse and risky sex contribute to sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). Purpose We develop and empirically test a formative theoretical model of sexual temptation involving substance abuse (cigarettes, alcohol, and marijuana), safe sexual behavior (use of condom/barrier for oral and vaginal intercourse), risky sexual behavior (unprotected sex and multiple sexual partners), and STDs: gonorrhea, HIV, and genital herpes. We simultaneously explore these constructs, controlling membership in social groups (fraternity/sorority, varsity athlete, and club sports) and perceived norm of substance abuse. Methods A total of 687 American university students completed the National College Health Assessment (NCHA). We use structural equation modeling (SEM) to test the goodness of fit between our formative theoretical model and actual data. Results Results reveal the following discoveries: membership in campus social groups is positively associated with STDs, whereas perceived norm of peer substance abuse is negatively related to STDs. Under the influence of substance abuse, we test three outcomes of sexual temptation as related to STDs. Those who have no sex do not contract STDs. For those who fall into temptation and have sex, substance abuse is more strongly related to risky sex which leads to STDs than safe sex which does not. Those engaging in risky sex have significantly higher cognitive impairment than those practicing safe sex. Conclusions Substance abuse contributes to STDs through risky sex only. Those having risky sex suffer higher cognitive impairment than those practicing safe sex. We provide novel implications to policy makers, practitioners, and researchers.

What happens when people discover that they are members of a group about which they have previously formed some stereotype? To address this question, procedures previously shown to induce negative stereotypes of minority groups were combined with a social categorization manipulation. Participants in a distinctiveness-based illusory correlation paradigm (Hamilton & Gifford, 1976) either knew nothing about their group membership, or learned that they were a member of the minority group or the majority group either before or after being presented the stereotype-engendering stimulus materials. Results revealed that social categorization into the minority group before stimulus presentation eliminated the perceived stereotype and reversed the evaluative bias, whereas social categorization into the minority group after stimulus presentation had no effect on the perceived stereotype and only a weak effect in reducing the evaluative bias. Social categorization into the majority group either before or after stimulus presentation had little effect on the perceived stereotype and evaluative bias. These results clarify the process underlying the influence of social categorization on stereotype formation, underscore the distinction between affective and cognitive influences on stereotype formation and stereotype change, and offer insights into 'autostereotyping' among members of minority groups.

Prosocial Behavior and Empathy

Social learning has been documented in a wide diversity of animals. In free-living animals, however, it has been difficult to discern whether animals learn socially by observing other group members or asocially by acquiring a new behaviour independently. We addressed this challenge by developing network-based diffusion analysis (NBDA), which analyses the spread of traits through animal groups and takes into account that social network structure directs social learning opportunities. NBDA fits agent-based models of social and asocial learning to the observed data using maximum-likelihood estimation. The underlying learning mechanism can then be identified using model selection based on the Akaike information criterion. We tested our method with artificially created learning data that are based on a real-world co-feeding network of macaques. NBDA is better able to discriminate between social and asocial learning in comparison with diffusion curve analysis, the main method that was previously applied in this context. NBDA thus offers a new, more reliable statistical test of learning mechanisms. In addition, it can be used to address a wide range of questions related to social learning, such as identifying behavioural strategies used by animals when deciding whom to copy.

Three studies investigated contingency learning and stereotype formation in a scenario about group membership and behavior with a confounding context factor. The studies tested predictions from theoretical accounts of biased group judgments in terms of simplistic reasoning, parallel distributed memory, and pseudocontingencies. Study 1 revealed a positive correlation between erroneous stereotype formation and learning of the true contingencies with the confounding factor. Study 2 showed that a focus manipulation during encoding moderated the correlation between stereotype formation and contingency learning but not the strength of the erroneous stereotype. Study 3 used a quasiexperimental comparison between participants with biased versus unbiased group judgments and extended the findings of a positive relation between stereotype formation and contingency learning. The results support an explanation of biased group judgments by pseudocontingencies; that is, unwarranted inferences from accurately perceived bivariate correlations in complex environments.

The purpose of this thesis was to further our understanding of the role of distributed cognition (with the use of pen and paper) in defusing the impact of evaluative pressure caused by priming gender-related stereotypes about girls’ maths performance and performance-approach goals on mental arithmetic performance. Interactivity is the transferring of internal cognitive process (e.g., computing simple maths tasks) to the outside world by using different tools (e.g., pen and paper). Some members of social groups (e.g., women) may not perform well in mathematics after negative stereotypes about their academic performance in the mathematical domain, which is known as stereotype threat. Stereotype threat is the risk of confirming a negative stereotype expectation about one’s group. Another decrement to performance may be caused by achievement goals, such as performance-approach goals. Performance-approach goals are linked to normative behaviour where the individual is motivated by outperforming others in academic performance. Negative stereotyping and performance-approach goals can generate anxiety that deplete existing working memory resources. However, some of these working memory limitations can be compensated by off-loading the internal cognitive process to the external environment. We tested whether off-loading could buffer the effects of stereotype threat and performance-approach goals in four experiments. In Studies 1 (16-year-old girls) and 2 (female university students), participants carried out mental arithmetic tasks in the stereotype threat condition or control, crossed with interactivity or no interactivity. There was increased maths performance (accuracies) with interactivity, confirming existing literature. Additionally, the solution latencies were improved when the mental arithmetic tasks were in a known format. However, when the maths tasks were in a novel format, the participants of the second study became slower because of speed-accuracy trade-off. The first two studies found no statistically significant effects of stereotype threat on maths performance. Nevertheless, working memory in participants in Study 1 was depleted in the stereotype threat condition, but it did not affect mental arithmetic performance. Finally, the participants in the interactive conditions in Study 2 had a reduction of their state maths anxiety levels measured at the end of the experiment. Studies 3 (Pilot Study) and 4 focused on achievement goals and their differing effects on working memory. Female university students carried out modular arithmetic tasks in a performance-approach goal or mastery-approach goal condition crossed with interactivity or no interactivity. Performance-approach goal endorsement hampered cognitive performance, as measured by maths accuracy in Study 3, but not in Study 4. These findings were extended in Study 4 where these negative effects were reduced with the help of interactivity. Across both studies, individuals in the mastery-approach goal condition had a performance drop in the interactive condition (Study 3 and 4). Thus, interactivity did not benefit the cognitive performance of these participants. Finally, Study 4 reported higher maths anxiety levels for the individuals in the performance-approach condition. However, the increased maths anxiety levels were not reduced with the help of distributed cognition. Reasons for the findings and future implications will be discussed.

In spite of the omission of sexual orientation as a ground for persecution under the 1951 Refugee Convention, there is now widespread acceptance of sexuality based claims in most western countries. UNHCR has continued to develop policy and guidance to promote a rights based approach in protecting same-sex oriented refugees. In its most recent guidelines on claims to refugee status based on sexual orientation and/or gender identity, UNHCR recognizes that the convention grounds of religion, political opinion, and membership of a particular social group may be relevant in deciding claims based on sexual orientation. However, of these convention grounds, membership of a particular social group has emerged as the most utilized ground in dealing with same-sex oriented refugees. Nonetheless, there is no uniform definition of what constitutes a particular social group, as countries such as the USA and Australia have reached different definitions. It is partly against this backdrop that this article considers the Convention grounds of religion and political opinion for assessing refugee cases based on sexual orientation, to determine whether they might be helpful and may have a crucial role to play in the assessment of such cases.

Although the intestinal flora of chimpanzees has not been studied, insight into this dynamic environment can be obtained through studies on their feces. We analyzed fecal samples from human-habituated, wild chimpanzees at Mahale Mountains National Park, Tanzania, and compared microbial community profiles to determine if members of the same social group were similar. Between July and December 2007, we collected fresh fecal samples from 12 individuals: four juveniles, four adolescents, and four adults, including three parent-offspring pairs. Each sample was analyzed using Terminal-Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism of amplified 16S rRNA genes. Twelve different profiles were generated, having between 1 and 15 Terminal-Restriction Fragments (T-RFs). Overall, a total of 23 different T-RFs were produced. Putative assignments of T-RFs corresponded to the phyla Firmicutes (Clostridia, Bacilli, and Lactobacilli), Bacteroidetes, Tenericutes (Mollicutes Class), Actinobacteria, and Proteobacteria, as well as to uncultured or unidentified organisms. Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes phyla and Mollicutes Class were the most commonly assigned in 11, 8, and 8 of the samples, respectively, with this being the first report of Mollicutes in wild chimpanzees. Principal Components Analysis (PCA) revealed clustering of nine samples, and 80.5% of the diversity was accounted for by three samples. Morisita indices of community similarity ranged between 0.00 and 0.89, with dissimiliarity (<0.5) between most samples when compared two at a time. Our findings suggest that, although phylotypes are common among individuals, profiles among members of the same social group are host-specific. We conclude that factors other than social group, such as kinship and age, may influence fecal bacterial profiles of wild chimpanzees, and recommend that additional studies be conducted.

Climatic, social and reproductive influences on behavioural thermoregulation in a female-dominated lemur

Effects of communication, group selection, and social learning on risk and ambiguity attitudes: Experimental evidence from Bangladesh

Agricultural innovation has tremendous potentials to improve the welfare of the rural poor. Yet, many new technologies that seem profitable in demonstration plots are not widely adopted due to inadequate social groups linking the farmers to the researchers which result to non-effective information dissemination. There is no adequate link between the farmers and the social groups which are very pivotal to the adoption of innovation and its eventual usage. This study therefore looked at social network and innovation dissemination among farmers in Kwara state Nigeria. This research specifically examined the impact of social network among the farmers in the study area and estimated the correlation of individual farmer’s choices and social network behaviour. A two-stage approach was used in data selection; the first stage was purposive and second involved the random selection technique to collect data from 125 respondents in the study area. Descriptive statistic, Social Network Analysis (SNA), and Qap correlation were the tools employed. The result of the analysis showed that farmers who are members of social group adopt innovation faster. The p-value at 5% signified that there is no correlation between the farmer choice behaviour and social network behaviour. This implies that farmer tend to behave differently under different conditions as regards their choice of innovation adoption., However, when farmers are members of a social group, their decision tend to be different from when they were not and thus, there is a need for adequate information link between researchers and the farmers. Female farmers should be encouraged to join social group as measure to enhance innovation adoption. Keywords: Social Network Analysis (SNA), Qap Correlation and Innovation

The purpose of this review is to demonstrate the applicability of a social identity approach to leadership in sporting contexts. A social identity approach to leadership contends that leaders and group members are connected through feeling a sense of belonging and emotional attachment to their group. The present review (1) outlines the theoretical underpinnings of social identity theory, (2) reflects on the four principles of social identity leadership and applies them to sport, (3) contrasts social identity leadership with current leadership theories, and (4) provides suggestions for future research investigating a social identity approach to leadership in sport. Accordingly, the review illustrates how an appreciation of the social context and group members’ values allow leaders to mobilise – enlist the motivation and abilities of – athletes to achieve the leader’s vision. A social identity approach to leadership has the potential to extend understanding of leadership in sport by emphasising the role of groups and context in leadership.

Itch expectancies play a key role in itch perception and may elicit avoidance behaviors to prevent itch, even when it is costly. Despite theoretical evidence that expectancies can influence avoidance behaviors, no studies have empirically investigated their association in the context of itch. The aim of this study was to investigate whether negative expectancy manipulation led to more costly itch-related avoidance behavior. This study was conducted using a within-subjects repeated measures experimental design. Thirty-four participants underwent an instructional learning and conditioning procedure in which a sham experimental solution paired with a "high" quantity of cowhage spicules was used to induce high itch-expectations. A control solution paired with a medium quantity of cowhage spicules was used to induce medium itch-expectations. Subsequently, participants learned that by effortfully gripping a dynamometer above a certain level, they could avoid strong itching. In anticipation of two other itch stimuli after reapplication of the experimental solution and the control solution, average grip strength (reflecting costly itch-avoidance behavior) was measured. Results indicated that negative itch expectations were successfully induced (p < 0.001, d = 1.16). However, while participants engaged in avoidance behavior in both experimental and control trials, negative expectancy learning did not lead to more costly avoidance behavior (p = 0.74, ηp2 = 0.003). Results suggested that acute itch induced avoidance behavior regardless of expectations toward itch. Extending the research on the role of avoidance and its impact on itch may shed light on new approaches for itch management.

Purpose – Are members of socially dominant groups aware of the privileges they enjoy? We address this question by applying the notion of hypocognition to social privilege. Hypocognition is defined as lacking a rich cognitive or linguistic representation (i.e., a schema) of a concept in question. By social privilege, we refer to advantages that members of dominant social groups enjoy because of their group membership. We argue that such group members are hypocognitive of the privilege they enjoy. They have little cognitive representation of it. As a consequence, their social advantage is invisible to them. Approach – We provide a narrative review of recent empirical work demonstrating and explaining this lack of expertise and knowledge in socially dominant groups (e.g., White People, men) about discrimination and disadvantage encountered by other groups (e.g., Black People, Asian Americans, women), relative what members of those other groups know. Findings – This lack of expertise or knowledge is revealed by classic cognitive psychological measures. Relative to members of other groups, social dominant group members generate fewer examples of discrimination that other groups confront, remember fewer instances after being presented a list of them, and are slower to respond when classifying whether these examples are discriminatory. Social Implications – These classic measures of cognitive expertise about social privilege predict social attitude differences between social groups, specifically whether people perceive the existence of social privilege as well as believe discrimination still exists in contemporary society. Hypocognition of social privilege also carries implications for informal interventions (e.g., acting “colorblind”) that are popularly discussed.