Basic concepts and theories

유고슬라비아 사회주의 연방 공화국의 붕괴 이후, 신생 크로아티아 공화국은 연방의 국가 언어였던 세르보크로아티아어의 한 축을 이루었던 크로아티아어가 세르비아어와는 완전히 별개의 언어임을 선언하며, 언어 문제를 정치화하기 시작한다. 이 연구는 우선, 언어를 정치화하는 실제 정책과 계획인, 언어 정책과 언어 계획의 개념과 유형을 일반적인 논의를 통해 정리하고 실제 이것들이 20세기 크로아티아에서 어떤 방식으로 전개되고, 어떤 결과를 가져왔는지를 연구하고자 하였다. 이를 위해 1991년 이후 국가주도로 진행되어온 크로아티아 언어 계획을 ‘지위 계획(status planning)’, ‘자료계획(corpus planning)’, ‘습득 계획(acquisition planning)’으로 분류하여 크로아티아어의 변화 과정, 새로운 크로아티아어 규범화 과정과 쟁점, 현재의 언어상황을 크로아티아 민족 정체성과 연계하여 분석하였다. 크로아티아 언어 계획 연구는 시대적으로 1991년 크로아티아 독립 국가 설립 이후의 기간에 초점을 맞추었지만, 그 결과로 나타나는 현재의 언어 상황을 이해할 수 있는 포괄적인 발전과정을 포함하여 설명하고자 하였다. ‘민족 = 언어 = 영토 = 국가’를 동일시하는 유고슬라비아 지역의 언어와 민족 정체성에 대한 복잡한 역사와 크로아티아 언어 계획 사례는 언어 정체성, 언어 정책 및 언어 계획 문제 전반에 대한 광범위한 부분에 대한 이해를 제공할 수 있을 것이다.Following the collapse of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Croatian administration was declared to be a separate language, distinct from Serbian, and linguistic issues became highly politicized. This study first summarizes the concepts and types of ‘language policy’ and ‘language planning’, which are the actual policies and plans for language politics, and discusses how these develop in the 20th century in Croatia. Then, the Croatian language plan, which has been led by the state since 1991, is divided into ‘status planning’, ‘corpus planning’ and ‘acquisition planning’. According to this classification, the process of change of Croatian, the process of new normatization of Croatian language and issues, and current language situation are analyzed in connection with Croatian ‘national identity’. It focuses on the period following the creation of an independent Croatian state in 1991, but encompasses broader historical developments to provide a context for understanding the contemporary linguistic situation. The complex history of language standardization in the Yugoslav lands and the emphasis on language planning in Croatia make this an especially interesting case study that offers insight into wider debates about linguistic identity, language policy, and language planning issues in general.

Contents: Introduction. Part I: Important Social Contexts in Research on Second Language Teaching and Learning. Introduction. M.E. Brisk, Bilingual Education. M.R. Hawkins, ESL in Elementary Education. P.A. Duff, ESL in Secondary Schools: Programs, Problematics, and Possibilities. D.E. Murray, ESL in Adult Education. S. Carkin, English for Academic Purposes. P. Master, English for Specific Purposes. C. Roberts, English in the Workplace. B. Tomlinson, English as a Foreign Language: Matching Procedures to the Context of Learning. Y. Kachru, Teaching and Learning of World Englishes. Part II: Methods in Second Language Research. Introduction. L. Harklau, Ethnography and Ethnographic Research on Second Language Teaching and Learning. L. van Lier, Case Study. A. Lazaraton, Quantitative Research Methods. D. Nunan, Classroom Research. A. Burns, Action Research. Part III: Applied Linguistics and Second Language Research. Introduction. T. Pica, Second Language Acquisition Research and Applied Linguistics. S.L. McKay, Sociolinguistics and Second Language Learning. J. Zuengler, K.M. Cole, Language Socialization and Second Language Learning. G. Kasper, C. Roever, Pragmatics in Second Language Learning. J.P. Lantolf, Sociocultural and Second Language Learning Research: An Exegesis. N. Markee, Conversation Analysis for Second Language Acquisition. R.B. Kaplan, Contrastive Rhetoric. S. Conrad, Corpus Linguistics and L2 Teaching. Part IV: Second Language Processes and Development. Introduction. G. Ioup, Age in Second Language Development. R. DeKeyser, A. Juffs, Cognitive Considerations in L2 Learning. Z. Han, L. Selinker, Fossilization in L2 Learners. M. Swain, The Output Hypothesis: Theory and Research. E. Tarone, Speaking in a Second Language. M. Rost, L2 Listening. T.G. Wiley, Second Language Literacy and Biliteracy. P. Byrd, Instructed Grammar. D.E. Eskey, Reading in a Second Language. I.S.P. Nation, Teaching and Learning Vocabulary. J.S. Hedgcock, Taking Stock of Research and Pedagogy in L2 Writing. E. Hinkel, Analyses of Second Language Text and What Can Be Learned From Them. Part V: Methods and Curricula in Second Language Teaching. Introduction. S.J. Savignon, Communicative Language Teaching: Strategies and Goals. S. Fotos, Traditional and Grammar Translation Methods for Second Language Teaching. J. Williams, Form-Focused Instruction. M.A. Snow, A Model of Academic Literacy for Integrated Language and Content Instruction. R. Ellis, Instructed Language Learning and Task-Based Teaching. M. Celce-Murcia, E. Olshtain, Discourse-Based Approaches: A New Framework for Second Language Teaching and Learning. C.A. Chapelle, Computer-Assisted Language Learning. N.J. Anderson, L2 Learning Strategies. Part VI: Second Language Testing and Assessment. T. McNamara, Introduction. A.J. Kunnan, Language Assessment From a Wider Context. A. Davies, C. Elder, Validity and Validation in Language Testing. M. Chalhoub-Deville, C. Deville, A Look Back at and Forward to What Language Testers Measure. T. Lumley, A. Brown, Research Methods in Language Testing. D. Douglas, Testing Languages for Specific Purposes. C. Leung, Classroom Teacher Assessment of Second Language Development: Construct as Practice. Part VII: Identity, Culture, and Critical Pedagogy in Second Language Teaching and Learning. Introduction. T. Ricento, Considerations of Identity in L2 Learning. M. Byram, A. Feng, Teaching and Researching Intercultural Competence. S. Canagarajah, Critical Pedagogy in L2 Learning and Teaching. Part VIII: Language Planning and Policy and Language Rights. R.B. Baldauf, Jr., Introduction. R.B. Baldauf, Jr., Language Planning and Policy Research: An Overview. T. van Els, Status Planning for Learning and Teaching. A.J. Liddicoat, Corpus Planning: Syllabus and Materials Development. R.B. Baldauf, Jr., R.B. Kaplan, Language-in-Education Planning. D.E. Ager, Prestige and Image Planning. S. May, Language Planning and Minority Language Rights.

In addition to twelve recognized minority languages (Law no. 482/1999), Italy features a number of non-recognized so-called “dialects” that is difficult to state, but which renowned linguists like Tullio De Mauro and Giulio Lepschy calculate as ranging between 12 and 15. These languages are still spoken (and sometimes written) by slightly less than half of the Italian population and are the first languages of a significant part of it. Some of them even have a history of (semi)official usage and feature large and interesting literary traditions. An introduction on the linguistic situation in Italy, the classification of its “dialects” and their state of endangerment, is followed by discussion of the present (scant) legislation and action being taken to protect the seven language varieties chosen as case studies: Piedmontese, Western Lombard/Milanese, Venetan, Ligurian/Genoese, Roman, Neapolitan and Sicilian. These language planning strategies are discussed particularly in terms of graphization (corpus planning), status and acquisition planning, even when, as in most cases, this “planning” may be uncoordinated and even unconscious. The article closes with a few general considerations and with some suggestions on how these initiatives could be improved.

Supported by contemporary evidence, this study discusses the revival of Hebrew a century ago (within two or three decades), with a focus on the actual total shift of pre-Israel Palestine's Jewish community from Yiddish and several other languages to Hebrew as an all-purpose means of communication. First, four "factors" that prevailed prior to and during the revival are discussed: the "communicative", "political", "religious", and "literary." The study then proposes schematically that the shift to Hebrew evolved in a cycle consisting of four consecutive albeit partially overlapping "steps": (1) The children are instilled with desired language attitudes. (2) The children acquire the code, Hebrew. (3) The children transfer Hebrew, now a second language, out of the schools. (4) With these children now adults, their newly born receive Hebrew as a first language. Finally, the study suggests that, in the absence of a central authority, the revival can be seen as a case of "micro language planning," in which potential speakers constituted "language planning agents" active in "language planning cells." (Language revival, Hebrew, language planning, language shift, vernacular)

Book synopsis: The nine original papers in this volume have been written by international experts and deal with individual bilingualism, societal and educational phenomena, addressing issues such as bilingual usage, acquisition, teaching, and language planning and policy. The volume’s major asset lies in its diversity of topics and in the range of languages and geographical regions covered. The perspective adopted is multidisciplinary, including linguistics, sociolinguistics, psychology, and applied linguistics.

This chapter deals with some ongoing issues concerning norms in the German language, including the international controversy on orthographic reform. It then addresses the nature of communication barriers within German and Austrian societies, including limited access to information.

As a model of a multilingual country, Singapore's language policy has always aimed to balance linguistic diversity and social integration. Through the synergy of status planning, corpus planning, prestige planning and education planning, Singapore has successfully shaped a multilingual society with English as the lingua franca while preserving the cultural identity of the community. However, the new challenges posed by globalization and intergenerational linguistic change have prompted Singapore to continuously adjust its policy framework. Taking Singapore as an example, this paper explores the practical paths, effectiveness and inherent tensions of its language policy from the definitions of language planning and language policy, as well as from the perspectives of functionalism, social constructivism and critical theory.

The South African Language Rights Monitor (SALRM) was launched in 2003 for the purpose of making available an annual comprehensive report on the language rights situation in South Africa. Since then the focus of the report has been broadened to cover language matters in general. The core question being investigated in this article is whether the Monitor contains relevant information on language policy and planning. Joseph Lo Bianco's distinction between three sources of language policy and planning is used to extrapolate relevant information from the 2009 issue. The data set collected for this purpose uncovers some tendencies that point to the contestation of public texts that are perceived to have become outdated. The study finds the report contains some useful information that could help a body such as Pansalb in fulfilling its language policy and planning mandate. It also emphasises the importance of the context within which language interventions are conceived.

In South Africa, reports on language shift have focused on instances of language shift from indigenous African languages to English. There is, however, also research that suggests that language shift is taking place from Afrikaans to English in the Western Cape. Anthonissen (2009), for example, notes in her research among Coloured communities that a shift has taken place from Afrikaans first language (L1), across three generations, to English L1. Against this backdrop, this paper investigates language shift in two semi-urban Western Cape Coloured communities; in particular, it examines what patterns of language shift/maintenance can be observed, and investigates sociolinguistic factors, such as age, language of schooling, socio-economic status and language attitudes, to which the observed patterns can be ascribed. The aim is to ascertain whether language shift, from Afrikaans to English has taken place, and which factors appear to encourage or discourage language shift in the two communities. Through the administration of a questionnaire to 50 households, 25 in each of the communities, the study this paper reports on examined language use across a number of domains: at home, in the community, in church, and in the workplace. It also explored the language attitudes of the participants (53 in total) towards Afrikaans in order to investigate the possibility that this language might be used for indexing their identity. The collected data does not provide any evidence of language shift from Afrikaans to English. However, there seems to be increased use of English in the public domains (such as the workplace and in the church), with Afrikaans being used almost exclusively in the intimate domains. It appears that Afrikaans remains a strong marker of identity in the two semi-urban Western Cape Coloured communities, despite English largely being regarded as the language of upward socio-economic mobility.

I present two U.S. court cases in which I participated as a linguistic anthropological "expert" to show how language ideologies of the law both influence legal outcomes and conflict with "scientific" ideas about language. One case was the murder trial of a young Mixtec‐speaking Indian from Oaxaca; the other was a civil suit brought by four Hispanic women dismissed from an elder‐care center for speaking Spanish on the job. I identify in the linguistic ideologies of both cases a principle of "referential transparency" that takes the essential business of words, regardless of the linguistic code, to be communicating propositional information. In the second case, 1 describe a further notion of "linguistic paranoia" in which speaking a language other than English is taken as inherently insulting or threatening. I relate these implicit ideological threads to the legal outcomes, to the restricted notions of potential "language rights" that might emerge from such ideologies, and to the clash between theoretical and judicial perspectives on language. [Keywords: U.S. law, language rights, linguistic ideology, expert witnesses, linguistic anthropology]

Culture and language are intertwined. In fact, cultural identity depends on linguistic identity, which is why minority groups threatened by the destruction of their culture strive to protect their language. This paper focuses on the linguistic aspect of culture, in analyzing status planning. Language planning can be differentiated into two components, status planning which concerns the allocation of one language compared with another, and corpus planning which is concerned with codification and norm selection (Cobarrubias and Fishman, 1984). This paper concentrates on the former. Language planning has largely been the domain of linguists and sociologists with little input from economists; nonetheless, the absence of any theory of language planning suggests that economics can make a contribution. This paper is a modest attempt to provide an analytical framework, using a very simple non-technical economic model. Appropriate policies to shift the demand for languages are compared with supply oriented policies; the former it is argued are more effective. The paper uses as illustration the French language, either as an international language or an official language within Canada. The rationale for using French is that no language in history has been supported so generously from the public purse. The point of departure of the paper is the model with a brief justification for applying economic analysis to language learning. The second section examines policy implications both for the French government and for governments in Canada, while the final section analyzes Canadian language status planning in the context of the model.

This study explores language shift and maintenance of Indigenous languages in bilingual contact situations. It specifically examines how factors such as language attitudes favour and deter the use, maintenance and transmission of Nahuatl. Data on language attitudes were collected by means of interviews which covered the linguistic background, language use, language significance, language shift, language maintenance, and evaluations of Nahuatl varieties. Fifty-two adults, comprising bilinguals and Nahuatl monolinguals, were interviewed in either Nahuatl or Spanish. The general themes identified in the interviews were pro-Indigenous attitudes, referring to the importance of Nahuatl to individuals and the community, purist attitudes, concerning Nahuatl use, and anti-Indigenous attitudes, questioning the relevance of Nahuatl for socioeconomic advancement. The findings provide insight into the intergenerational transmission, language use in the home and community, language education, speakers’ beliefs, and internal and external influences about Nahuatl in Mexico. They provide new insights into the perspectives of adults who represent the parent and grandparent generations, important groups responsible for the transmission of Nahuatl to the younger generations.

Article The future of Quechua and the Quechua of the future: language ideologies and language planning in Bolivia was published on April 28, 2004 in the journal International Journal of the Sociology of Language (volume 2004, issue 167).

Irish Sign Language (ISL) became an officially recognised language in Ireland by means of the ISL Act 2017, which commenced in December 2020 after more than 30 years of campaigning by the Deaf community. While some work has investigated language ideologies behind the ISL recognition campaign, this study explores language ideologies in parliamentary discourse, specifically perspectives of languageness of ISL. This is crucial to the study of sign language recognition and policymaking, as previous research has identified a link between differing views on sign languages and deafness and policy outcomes. A corpus of parliamentary debates on ISL recognition (2013-2020) was compiled and analysed. A sociocognitive approach was adopted, alongside a framework for analysing how discourses establish legitimacy for social practices. Theoretically, categories of sign language ideologies were applied. A link between language, culture and identity is established by the legislators through their use of terms such as 'indigenous' and 'native' to describe ISL and the Deaf community. ISL is compared to Irish to further their argument and claims are made about the capability of ISL as a legitimate language. Finally, benefits of ISL to wider society are highlighted.

This article contains a report of a case study on language shift and language loss in three generations of a Dutch immigrant family in New Zealand carried out in 1990/1991 (Folmer 1991). Language shift refers to the shift from Dutch to English and language loss to the loss of the mother tongue Dutch. In addition to language shift and loss, the personal linguistic history of the subjects and their (language) attitudes were examined; these topics are only discussed indirectly in this article. One first generation member, five members of the second generation and two third generation children took part in the investigation. The instruments used were an analysis of letters, an interview, a domain questionnaire, an editing test and a correction test. It was found that language shift increases with each generation. The factors education, exogamy, (language) attitudes and age also proved to be important. Furthermore, the type of domain or activity made a difference. In both the first and the second generation the degree of language loss in Dutch was rather low. Some trends in the loss process were established and certain word classes turned out to be more problematic than others.