Blockchain and Smart Contracts in a Decentralized Health Infrastructure

PurposeThe COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant and worldwide influence on healthcare delivery, and it has significantly increased the pace at which digital technology is being used. Blockchain, one of these developing digital technologies, is distinguished by a number of properties. This study focuses on a blockchain-enabled healthcare supply chain. The purpose of this work is to investigate how blockchain technology (BCT) benefits the performance of healthcare supply chain management (HSCM).Design/methodology/approachThe present study is based on the empirical research. Blockchain Technology (BCT), Healthcare Sustainable Supply Chain Practices (HSSCP), Healthcare Supply Chain Performance (HSCP) and Stakeholders’ Involvement (SI) practices are identified from the literature review and hypotheses are framed to check their interrelationship. For testing of hypothesis, a questionnaire was developed. Data collection was done by healthcare professionals via Google docs. The IBM SPSS version 22.0 was used to analyze the data and IBM SPSS AMOS 22.0 software was used for the development of structural modal. The data was collected through the Google form from the stakeholders of healthcare sector and analyzed through Structural Equation Modelling.FindingsThis research is focused on adoption of BCT enabled Healthcare Sustainable Supply Chain to improve HSCP. From the result, it had been found that BCT is positively effecting the stakeholder's involvement (SI) and HSSCP practices. Cumulatively, they positively impact the performance of HSCP. From this study, it is found that adoption of BCT enabled Healthcare Sustainable Supply Chain succours to combat COVID-19 situation.Originality/valueThis study attempts to show the potential benefits of the adoption of BCT enabled HSSCP to improve HSCP.

With the increasing prominence of food safety problems, consumers are paying more and more attention to the quality and safety of agricultural products. Information traceability of agricultural products supply chain is an important way to ensure the quality and safety of agricultural products. Blockchain technology provides a new solution for information traceability of agricultural products supply chain with its characteristics of decentralization, immutable and transparency. This paper reviews the basic principles of blockchain technology and its application in agricultural supply chain information traceability. By combing relevant literature, it is found that blockchain technology is widely used in the production, processing, logistics and other aspects of agricultural products, effectively improving the transparency and traceability of the supply chain. Finally, it is concluded that the information traceability of agricultural product supply chain under the blockchain improves the traceability, visibility and information security of the supply chain, and also promotes the cooperation and coordination among various entities in the supply chain. With the continuous development and improvement of blockchain technology, its application in agricultural product supply chain information traceability will be more extensive and in-depth, providing more solid technical support for the quality and safety of agricultural products.

Blockchain technology was recently invented in financial technology to provide an irreversible, consensus-based, and secure environment. There are areas where trust and transparency are crucial, and that is when blockchain comes to the rescue. It is essential to transmit pharmaceutical data to several parties reliably. Similar to prescription drugs, blockchain technology enables traceability and visibility to supply chains, offering complete information from producers to buyers. Large manufacturers now gather and manage data, and drugstore stores abuse their centralized systems. Many existing approaches and methods enable pharmaceutical data to be kept and centralized between the tending supplier and other stakeholders. This article introduces blockchain technology, reviews and analyses the most recent and significant research using blockchain technology in pharmaceutical supply chains, identifies the challenges connected with blockchain technology, and suggests some future research. Here, we propose an enhanced supply chain management system where the medicine data is available on blockchain to verify all stakeholders and consumers.

PurposeThis paper aims to investigate the way in which blockchain technology is likely to influence future supply chain practices and policies.Design/methodology/approachA systematic review of both academic and practitioner literature was conducted. Multiple accounts of blockchain adoption within industry were also consulted to gain further insight.FindingsWhile blockchain technologies remain in their infancy, they are gaining momentum within supply chains, trust being the predominant factor driving their adoption. The value of such technologies for supply chain management lies in four areas: extended visibility and traceability, supply chain digitalisation and disintermediation, improved data security and smart contracts. Several challenges and gaps in understanding and opportunities for further research are identified by this research. How a blockchain-enabled supply chain should be configured has also been explored from a design perspective.Research limitations/implicationsThis systematic review focuses on the diffusion of blockchain technology within supply chains, and great care was taken in selecting search terms. However, the authors acknowledge that their choice of terms may have excluded certain blockchain articles from this review.Practical implicationsThis paper offers valuable insight for supply chain practitioners into how blockchain technology has the potential to disrupt existing supply chain provisions as well as a number of challenges to its successful diffusion.Social implicationsThe paper debates the poential social and economic impact brought by blockchain.Originality/valueThis paper is one of the first studies to examine the current state of blockchain diffusion within supply chains. It lays a firm foundation for future research.

Enhancing supply chain traceability and efficiency in the Fast-Moving Consumer Goods (FMCG) sector is critical for mitigating counterfeit losses and ensuring product integrity. This study proposes a comprehensive model for the implementation of blockchain technology tailored to the unique demands of the FMCG supply chain. The model emphasizes transparency, accountability, and real-time data sharing among stakeholders, including manufacturers, distributors, retailers, and consumers. By integrating blockchain, the FMCG industry can create a tamper-proof record of each transaction and product movement, significantly improving traceability from production to point-of-sale. Key components of the proposed model include a decentralized ledger that captures product information, provenance data, and transaction history. This approach facilitates efficient tracking of products, enhances supply chain visibility, and enables stakeholders to authenticate goods at any stage. Moreover, by employing blockchain’s smart contract functionality, the model allows for automated compliance verification and streamlined processes, reducing the time and resources required for audits and inspections. The study further explores potential extensions of blockchain technology to incorporate smart contracts that can automate various supply chain operations. These contracts can facilitate automatic payments upon delivery confirmation, trigger inventory replenishment orders based on real-time data, and enforce compliance with regulatory requirements without human intervention. By leveraging these technological advancements, FMCG companies can significantly reduce counterfeit losses and improve overall supply chain efficiency. This not only protects brand reputation but also fosters consumer trust, which is vital in an increasingly competitive market. The implications of this research highlight the transformative potential of blockchain technology in the FMCG sector, paving the way for future innovations in traceability and efficiency. In conclusion, this study presents a robust framework for blockchain implementation in the FMCG supply chain, addressing critical issues of traceability and counterfeiting while offering pathways for future enhancements through smart contracts.

The research was designed to analyse the role of artificial intelligence (AI) in enhancing traceability, transparency and efficiency in the pharmaceutical supply chain network. Achieving this required the review of relevant industry and academic literature to retrieve secondary quantitative and qualitative data by adopting parallel methodology. During the research, it was observed that there is limited information to evaluate the sustained impact of integrating AI in the pharmaceutical supply chain to justify its high cost. Additionally, there is a need to have a standard metric for measuring the positive impact of utilising AI in manufacturing, purchasing, transportation, storage, and delivery in the pharmaceutical supply chain. The triple bottom line concept was used to access the impact of AI on sustainability, and it was identified that organizations which use AI can utilize the analysed data to make key decisions on supplier selection, authenticate the source of raw materials, configure, and design their supply chain networks in a sustainable manner. In doing this, there will be a positive impact on the environment, through ethical sourcing, the people, because counterfeit drugs will be eliminated, original drugs will be available when needed, and profitability for organisations through reduced cost and enhanced productivity. Furthermore, it was identified that using AI ensures there is a continuous flow of essential medicines using the continuous flow model, in an agile and lean way while eliminating supply chain variability. Finally, it was established that integrating AI in the pharmaceutical supply chain is essential because it will revolutionize and optimize the entire system. Therefore, organizations should invest in AI and human capital development so people with the requisite skills can manage the pharmaceutical supply chain systems.

The coronavirus pandemic caused global health and economic disruption of an unknown scale. Several issues with the pharmaceutical supply chain such as the counterfeiting of drugs came to light in these dire times. While continual efforts are being applied in order to effectively treat and annihilate the coronavirus, so are the efforts of supply chains to prepare for patient care in case of a recurrence. The requirement of superior quality medicines has sky rocketed, subsequently, so has the influx of counterfeited drugs. The security of the pharmaceutical supply chain is unquestionably necessary due to the large scale increase in demand for drugs. Tampering of the supply chain is not easily detectable when unethical practices are suspected currently. A radical and innovative method that contains the potential to overcome the challenges of securing the pharmaceutical supply chain is the blockchain technology. So, our proposed solution amalgamates blockchain technology into the drug supply chain to make it tamper-proof. This study proposes a system that harnesses blockchain's properties to ensure supply of safe and traceable pharmaceuticals from end to end. The smart contracts designed have been deployed on a local blockchain using Ganache. Results of our experimentation indicate with certainty that not only is this solution feasible but it is more secure than the present day scenario of the pharmaceutical supply chain.

The pharmaceutical industry struggles with issues like counterfeit medicines, poor transparency, and inefficient inventory handling. This study intro- duces a new system that combines Blockchain, Smart Contracts, and Ar- tificial Intelligence (AI) to build a safer and more reliable supply chain. Blockchain records every step securely and makes transactions tamper- proof, while smart contracts automatically verify and manage supply chain activities. AI is used to forecast medicine shortages so that reorders can be placed before stock runs out. The system is developed using Python, SQLite, and JSON, and experimental results show better tracking, fewer manual processes, and smarter inventory control. By bringing these tech- nologies together, the proposed solution not only reduces the risk of counter- feit drugs but also increases the overall efficiency of pharmaceutical supply chains. This integrated approach highlights how emerging technologies can be combined to create practical solutions for real-world healthcare challenges. Beyond pharmaceuticals, the framework can also inspire applications in other supply chains where trust, transparency, and predictive management are critical. Importantly, the entire blockchain and smart contract logic are implemented directly in Python, without relying on Solidity, Ganache, or any external blockchain platforms, making the system lightweight, self- contained, and easier to deploy.

In some liberal democracies, governments allow people to legally own guns to protect their lives and property. However, gun crime has been increasing in recent years. Taking the United States, for example, a report pointed out that Americans are 10 times more likely to be shot than citizens of other countries. Murder using guns in the United States is 25 times more than that in the other 22 high-income countries. Most of these guns came from other cities. These illegally circulating guns are directly linked to deadly street violence. This means that effective firearm management can reduce deadly violence. In the past few years, Radio Frequency IDentification (RFID) technology was often used to track the supply chain. However, in the traditional supply chain, only the participants of the supply chain can query information. Furthermore, only the participants can verify the correctness of the data. This result causes information to be not transparent. On the other hand, blockchain technology, with a unique combination of features such as distributed notes, decentralized structure, consensus algorithm, storage mechanism, asymmetric encryption, and smart contract, ensures network visibility, transparency, and security. Therefore, we combine blockchain and RFID technology to propose a traceable firearm management system based on blockchain and Internet of Things (IoT) technology. The proposed method achieves several goals. First of all, the characteristic data through the blockchain can be publicly verified and the information will not be modified. The traceability of the data and the application of RFID can effectively manage the production chain. In addition, we used Burrows–Abadi–Needham logic (BAN logic) logic to prove mutual authentication, and the nonrepudiation and integrity method can also be achieved in our proposed scheme.

This article examines how artificial intelligence and decentralized technologies can transform healthcare supply chains to enhance national biosecurity. A comprehensive framework integrating predictive analytics, autonomous logistics, and distributed manufacturing is presented to create resilient healthcare ecosystems capable of withstanding pandemics, geopolitical conflicts, and cyber threats. Long Short-Term Memory networks and reinforcement learning algorithms offer unprecedented capabilities for demand forecasting and resource allocation, while Graph Neural Networks optimize medical distribution routes with improved efficiency. Blockchain technology provides tamper-proof transparency throughout pharmaceutical supply chains, and additive manufacturing enables localized production of critical supplies during disruptions. Digital twin simulations allow healthcare organizations to anticipate potential shortages before they materialize. Implementation challenges include data interoperability barriers, infrastructure limitations in developing regions, algorithmic bias risks, and data privacy concerns, all of which can be addressed through standardized exchange formats, coordinated investment strategies, formal fairness assessments, and federated learning approaches.

Blockchain technology has been widely applied in fields such as finance, supply chain, healthcare, and real estate. Aviation fuel is the largest operating cost item for airlines, accounting for 30\%-40\% of China Southern Airlines' operating costs, with an annual expenditure exceeding 30 billion CNY. However, the traditional aviation fuel settlement model suffers from systemic pain points due to paper document circulation, manual reconciliation, and multi-level approval processes, including lengthy procedures (single settlement takes 72 hours), significant capital tie-up (average accounts payable turnover of 45 days annually), and high dispute resolution costs (1.2 % reconciliation error rate). These issues simultaneously lead to prolonged payment cycles for aviation fuel suppliers, lack of high-quality supply chain scenarios for financial institutions, and limited bargaining power for airlines, creating tripartite conflicts. Aiming at the intelligent settlement of aviation fuel for China Southern Airlines, in this paper, we firstly establish a digital aviation fuel settlement platform, which integrates blockchain, smart contracts, and Robotic Process Automation (RPA) technologies through three-dimensional collaborative innovation across technology, process, and finance. Then, we propose a novel real-time settlement model based on blockchain smart contracts, achieving systematic restructuring of the settlement patterns within the aviation fuel supply chain. The research demonstrates that blockchain smart contract technology, by reconstructing the settlement trust mechanism and value distribution rules, can provide a reusable technical paradigm and business logic for the digital transformation of the aviation energy supply chain, and holds significant practical value for improving overall supply chain operational efficiency.

Supply chain management in healthcare sector plays significant role in the lives of people. Presence of intermediaries and lack of traceability has lured it towards drug counterfeiting, which reduces drug efficacy, thus hampering patients' trust and putting their lives in danger. Blockchain has emerged as a groundbreaking technology which provide a system that is immutable and transparent without the requirement of a trusted third party. This paper depicts how blockchain can provide a solution to reduce drug counterfeit in the pharmaceutical supply chain. This is achieved by creating a Blockchain Network in which each participant and the drug is registered to maintain transparency of transactions among all the participants. Realtime transfer of ownership in the blockchain creates all-round visibility among the registered participants to retrieve information like the current owner, timestamp of ownership transfer and authenticity of drugs. This paper implements PharmaChain for real-time traceability and trackability information of drugs from end-to-end of the pharmaceutical supply chain.

Currently, being considered is the pandemic of sustainability concerns along with the issues related to transparency and efficiency in the global food supply chain. In addition, blockchain technology is a transformational solution that facilitates stakeholders to build trust, operational efficiency and traceability. From management perspective, this research also examined the part that blockchain plays in the food supply chain including its possible effect or impact on sustainability, ethical sourcing, transparency as well as efficiency in food retail chain. This study’s methodology is quantitative research approach. The method in the study was a purposive sampling while survey questionnaires were used. A total of 280 participants have participated in the study. In this research, it was explored key blockchain applications as such as traceability systems, decentralized ledgers and smart contracts. Besides, blockchain improved the rate at which the supply chain worked through removing the inefficiencies, automating transactions and enhancing the workflow efficiency. It also reinforced trust by proper and clear product traceability and compliance with the regulatory standards and ethical sourcing. The results, however, suggest that blockchain technology holds the ability to undermine the handling of the supply chain where efficiencies in resource management and sustainable practices, fair trade, and convenient coordination are facilitated. Apart from the above, blockchain technology offers a solid suitable platform for boosting sustainability in operational efficiencies and streaming the food supply chain to the farthest point. But the adoption of this unnatural process continued and ultimately shaped the future of resilient and transparent food systems. Keywords: Supply Chain Efficiency, Ethical Sourcing, Smart Contracts, Traceability, Transparency, Food Supply Chain and Blockchain.

The object of this paper is blockchain technology in the tracking system of grain supply chains. The current study considers the task of determining the impact of blockchain technology introduction on the tracking system of grain supply chains. The key problems in the system of grain supply chains have been identified and the tasks to solve them have been proposed. The characteristics of key technologies in the implementation of blockchain in the system of grain supply chains have been defined, such as smart contracts, the Internet of Things (IoT), interplanetary file system (IPFS), contactless tags (RFID), Ethereum platform (identified as the best for supply chain tracking). The influence of factors on the introduction of blockchain technologies into the grain supply chain tracking system was determined using a SWOT analysis. Strengths include transparency, increased trust, automation of processes and protection against falsification. Weaknesses include high implementation costs, difficulty scaling, and the need for staff training. Opportunities that open up through the use of blockchain include attracting new partners, increasing competitiveness, and developing new markets. Threats include legal difficulties, technical failures, high energy costs, and resistance from market participants. An assessment of the investment attractiveness of introducing blockchain technology into the grain supply chain tracking system was carried out by calculating such indicators as economic effect; net present value (NPV) of implementing blockchain technologies; payback period of investments. According to the results of analysis, the following data were obtained: NPV (150439 a.u.)>0, the payback period of investments is 2.8 years, which is acceptable for large agricultural holdings. Prospects for development have been determined, in particular, the unification of agricultural holdings for the joint implementation of blockchain technologies in the tracking system of grain supply chains, which would be a strategically beneficial solution for all participants in the supply chain

India, a global leader in manufacturing and the largest supplier of cost-effective generic drugs around the world, especially to the African countries under the United Nations aid, is facing a widespread fake drug epidemic. One of the major reasons behind this is the unregulated and complex drug supply chain. When a drug consignment change ownership from manufacturer to distributor and then to the wholesaler, no information is exchanged between the parties. We lack adequate auditability and transparency of the original source of drugs. Consequences include counterfeit drug problem, inefficient recall process of the drugs and lack of trust. By putting the entire drug supply chain of India on Blockchain, we propose to perform a quantitative analysis on leveraging unique blockchain properties like authenticity, accountability, and ability to handle sensitive information to solve India’s counterfeit drugs problem permanently. It will strengthen the supply chain and will introduce the much-needed transparency of transactions and quality assurance by tracking a drug through its entire lifecycle from the extraction of raw materials to the patient taking the drug. Along with this, smart contracts can be deployed which will provide automation, trust, and security to the system. Smart contracts are digital protocols that can be programmed to perform a task when a particular goal is reached without any intervention of a third party and can facilitate services like automatic payments, quality control, and trust between stakeholders.