Can We Generalize from Case Studies?

Case study research is a widely-used approach in qualitative research. The advantages of case study research include its ability to investigate complex social phenomena and to handle dense data. However, it has several drawbacks, such as defining the case and ensuring rigour. The large variety in descriptions of case study implementation makes the application of case study research a challenge for novice and experienced researchers alike. The aim of this paper is to describe a novice’s foray into case study research, illustrating advantages, drawbacks, and applications of case study research through examples from a previously conducted case study. By mapping consistencies and differences in the case study descriptions, this paper offers a way for novice researchers to familiarize themselves with the range of case study perspectives and with the choices and considerations that must accompany the choice of case study research. This paper shows the definitional and structural challenges that case study researchers may face. We identified 14 descriptions of case study research with unclear or overlapping distinctions. Despite the large number of variations in case study descriptions, we singled out one main distinction: the distinction between multiple and single case studies. The sheer proliferation of how case study research should be conducted underlines the great responsibility case study researchers have when choosing an analytical and methodological approach and ensuring rigour in their research.

Despite fads and fashions in the academic culture, case-based reasoning has proved to be a persistent form of analysis in the social sciences, in the humanities, and even in moral thinking. Broadly understood, casebased reasoning locates the ultimate source of our epistemic and moral intuitions in the concreteness and idiosyncrasy of particulars. Even though they can be traced back to a common root, different traditions of reasoning with cases and of using case studies coexist in the academic landscape. This thesis focuses primarily on the use of case studies in the social sciences as an epistemic strategy to formulate, establish, and generalize causal hypotheses. A secondary goal is an investigation into the use of causal findings generated within and by means of case studies to inform policy making in the social realm.The thesis is organized in four chapters. In chapter 1, I characterize what can be regarded as two alternative views of case studies and the understanding of science in which they are embedded. The first approach flourished in the 1970s and looked at case studies as a special, and typically weaker, form of the experimental, statistical, or comparative methods. Since this approach tends to evaluate case studies by criteria belonging to other methodological traditions, it can be said to present a heteronomous paradigm. The second, alternative view, which was developed in the last decades, is taking shape gradually and is still far from being fully articulated. This approach strives for an understanding of case studies liberated from the narrow mindset that caricatures case studies as the method of last resort. In particular, it sees case studies as an autonomous epistemic genre (Morgan 2012).In chapter 2, I address internal validity in historical narratives. Historical narratives are case studies that aim to formulate and substantiate causal hypotheses by articulating descriptions of the sequences of events leading to the outcome of interest. They typically make use of process-tracing to draw causal inference, and often rely on the additional use of the methods of comparison. Despite the important role of historical narratives in the social sciences, how process-tracing operates in the narratives is still poorly understood. The debate on process-tracing in fact, even though it is growing thanks to a number of recent contributions, is still muddy and under-developed. In particular, there are no shared criteria to assess its epistemic contribution; moreover, the conditions proposed so far tend to tie the validity of the findings to the use of specific kinds of evidence and are thus unhelpful when this specific evidence is not available.I argue that the proposed conditions are unduly restrictive and fail to acknowledge the actual contributions process-tracing can offer to valid causal inference. I formulate new conditions to assess processtracing performance in cases in which the favourable evidential circumstances do not occur and existing criteria fail to apply.In chapter 3, I address the problem of generalizability. I provide an outline of what I define as the traditional view on external validity. This approach is conditioned by a statistical viewpoint on case study research (CSR) and reduces external validity to issues of mere representativeness. In so doing it leads the debate on the generalizability of case-study results to a dead end as it quickly dismisses external validity as the downside of CSR. At the same time, it suggests that CSR is comparatively stronger in providing internally valid results. On this ground this approach recommends the use of case studies when internal validity is the main research goal of interest, while turning to other methods when one pursues generalizations instead. This outcome is unfortunate because, as a matter of fact, case studies are often performed with the explicit or implicit purpose of drawing lessons from the studied case to be carried over to new contexts yet unstudied. …

PurposeThis study sets out to introduce an innovative performance measurement system (PMS) for business process outsourcing in facility management (FM) industry and analyse, comprehend and explain the main criticalities in the relationship among the actors involved in an outsourcing non core services contract, which is typical of the FM business sector. The aim of the tool is to improve performances and enhance their integration towards a partnership.Design/methodology/approachA case study research has been carried out on a medical service authority and on its FM service provider in order to investigate, understand and explain the main criticalities in their relationships. Starting from a literature analysis on empirical applications of PMS, an adaptation of a balanced scorecard (BSC) has been realized to exceed the criticalities of the case study and to propose a PMS for facility management.FindingsAs highlighted in the case study, the need for an improved actors' partnership has been fulfilled through an innovative approach, i.e. a performance measurement system which shares some indicators among FM service provider and customer.Research limitations/implicationsThe limitation of this research lies in the fact that PMS has been designed from a single case study. Despite this fact, the PMS can be easily adapted for wide applications inside the FM business sector.Practical implicationsThe PMS allows a better integration and coordination of the actors involved in an outsourcing services contract. It could be implemented in FM software tools.Originality/valueThe proposed performance measurement system is an innovative integration between the balanced scorecard and service balanced scorecard (SBC) for the facility management service industry. Furthermore, it shares some indicators which solve the main criticalities in the relationships among the actors involved in an outsourcing services contract and enhance partnership.

Without careful methodological guidance, case studies in software engineering are difficult to plan, design and execute. While there are a number of broad guidelines for case study research, there are none that specifically address the needs of a software engineer undertaking multiple case studies in an industrial setting. Through a synthesis of existing best practices in case study research, we provide a set of comprehensive guidelines for conducting multiple case studies in software engineering research. Our guidelines can assist software engineering researchers with all stages of multiple case study research, although in this paper we concentrate on the early phases, such as focusing the case study and detailed plan design. To date, three exploratory research projects found our guidelines very useful. We illustrate our guidelines with examples from one of these projects.

Human–Environment Relationship: Comparative Case Studies

PurposeTo showcase the importance of digital citizenship in the current era. This article compares the nine features of digital citizen provided by Ribble and Bailey (2007) with a case study conducted in a multicultural setting and identifies the tensions between ethics, religion and cultural norms in that environment.Design/methodology/approachA case study approach has been used in this research. Why case study? Because it is unique and provides in-depth, unique and invaluable findings. Case studies researchers have contributed to the development of case study research from diverse disciplines. Historical examples of case studies go back as far as the nineteenth century with the biography of Charles Darwin (Stewart, 2014). The dominance of positivism in science in the late 1940 and 1950s in social science sidelined qualitative approaches such as case studies. Although case study research was often criticized for its inability to support generalizations, and thus, provided limited validity and value as a research design (Merriam, 2009; Stewart, 2014), case study research provides intensive analysis of an issue. A Case study is intrinsic, instrumental and collective (Stake, 1995, 2006). Case study research encourages the detailed enquiry of a unit of analysis within its context.FindingsFindings show that current society needs to be educated on the nine aspects of digital citizenship. In the current era, changes are so rapid that every now and then, there must be collaboration and cooperation between different agencies to ensure that the tension between religiosity, cultural norms and ethics would be able to find some common ground. With more knowledge and wisdom on human rights, sustainability education and project-based learning in Civics Education, teachers, students, parents and community should often meet to decide on controversial issues and find ways to ensure that each one in society has the knowledge, skills and values for digital citizenship to grow and flourish.Originality/valueThe article is original in nature and has much social impact.

The case study is a neglected and maligned approach to social work research. Rejected more for how uninformed researchers have used it and less for flaws intrinsic to its nature, the case study is compatible with many forms of social work practice and policy research. Although case studies are not useful for estimating prevalence rates or for probabilistic generalization, they are useful to study problems in depth, to understand the stages in processes, or to understand situations in context (Greene & David, 1984; Yin, 1989). Other practice professions such as medicine, law, and business have long used case studies for research and teaching. Case studies have provided the basis for the development of psychotherapy (Kazdin, 1981), for the science of cognitive development as pioneered by Piaget (1951, 1952, 1954), and the science of human behavior (Garmezy, 1982). The foundation work for family therapy and family sociology was based on case studies (Gilgun, Daly, & Handel, 1992; Handel, 1991). This article defines the case study, presents guidelines for evaluating case studies, and shows the relevance of case studies to social work research. The guidelines for evaluation also provide guidelines for developing and interpreting case studies. The application of these guidelines will result in case studies that meet the rigorous standards of scientific research and are useful to social work practitioners. Background Definitions Case Study. The case study is an intensive investigation of a single unit (Handel, 1991; Runyan, 1982; Yin, 1989). Most case studies involve the examination of multiple variables. The interaction of the unit of study with its context is a significant part of the investigation. Examples include life history research on individual lives in context and thick description (Geertz, 1973, p. 6) ethnographies of social settings. Thickly described case studies take multiple perspectives into account and attempt to understand the influences of multilayered social systems on subjects' perspectives and behaviors. However, some case studies, such as single case evaluations as commonly practiced (Bloom & Fischer, 1983; Hersen & Barlow, 1984), look at a few variables measured over time and virtually ignore context. The defining characteristic of a case study, then, is its focus on an individual unit. The unit of study may be an individual person (Cooper, 1990; Fraiberg, 1981; Kivnick, 1988), but case studies can be done of other units such as a family (Davis & Reid, 1988), a treatment team (Gilgun, 1988), a segment of a clinical session (Sands, 1988), police in patrol cars (Ferraro, 1989), a community (Eckert, 1980), or a country (Ozawa, 1985). Case study research also can investigate multiple individual units (Gilgun, in press; Gilgun & Connor, 1989; Vera, 1990). Idiographic versus Nomothetic Research. Case studies are idiographic, meaning a single unit is studied, multiple variables are investigated, and generalizing is analytic rather than statistical and probabilistic (Runyan, 1982; Silverstein, 1988). In analytic generalization, findings extracted from a single case are tested for their fit with other cases and with patterns predicted by theory or with previous research and theory (Campbell, 1979; Gilgun, 1992; Yin, 1989). Researchers can argue for the generality of findings when findings are based on a wide variety of cases and are congruent with related research and theory (Gilgun, 1991, 1994; Green & David, 1984; Kazdin, 1981). Still, there is no guarantee that a set of findings will fit any other cases except those on which the findings have been constructed; the next case may contradict previous findings. Case study findings, then, are open-ended, subject to revision when they do not fit new cases. Idiographic research often is contrasted with nomothetic research, in which a few variables are investigated using groups of subjects. …

Abstract—Almost every child today spends his time playing gadgets every day . Currently, gadget users do not only come from workers or parents, but all minors can use gadgets and use them in the activities they do every day. It is proven in a survey conducted by the Indonesian Internet Service Providers Association (APJII) in 2018 that the total population of Indonesia reached 264.16 million, while it is known that Internet users reach 171.17 million, this means that 56% of the total population of Indonesia is already using the internet. As many as 64.8% there was a fairly rapid increase in internet use in Indonesia from 2017 to 2018. With gadgets, parents find it difficult to communicate with their children. Often orders from parents are ignored because children are busy with gadgets. From this phenomenon, the researchers conducted research on the interpersonal communication of parents with children who are gadget addicts. With this research, it is hoped that parents can play a more role and guide in providing gadgets to their children. This research uses qualitative research methods with a case study research approach. Using a single holistic case study type. The subjects studied in this study were parents who had children who were addicted to gadgets. Data collection methods used in this study were interviews, observation, and literature study. The results of this study are, 1) the communication process is carried out using the Osgood Schramm model 2) the parents determine the time to communicate is 30 minutes to 1 hour every day with the time of using the gadget 6-7 hours a day. 3) obstacles that occur anthropological barriers and psychological barriers 4) why it is necessary to communicate between parents and children so that children can change attitudes and behavior towards the better. Keywords— Gadget, Interpersonal Communication, Communication Process.

In the literature on the subject, the term “maturity model” is often found, which allows an organization to assess and compare its own practices with the best practices on the market to identify areas and directions for improvement. Maturity models are designed to assess the company's ability to effectively manage projects to increase the likelihood of repeated success. In addition, the company's success is associated with the growing level of project maturity, which is a condition for successful project management, especially in construction companies. The aim of the article is to research a model of project maturity in construction companies with the use of qualitative research strategy and fuzzy numbers. The authors used a single holistic case study in their research strategy. To gather information, the authors used interviews, document analysis, and audiovisual materials. The authors collected data on the basis of a case study protocol (questionnaire). The use of the model in the selected construction company indicated areas for improvement in project management. In the future, the model may be used in a decision support system (DSS) in the area of project management in construction companies that want to increase the probability of success of their projects.

ABSTRACTEthnic tourism is a catalyst for economic and sociocultural development in many countries. However, ethnic tourism development has given rise to many challenges associated with the sustainable development of ethnic regions within different cultural contexts. This paper addresses the social aspect of sustainable ethnic tourism through comparative case studies of two ethnic Hakka tourism destinations, Nanyuan and Sujiawei villages in Heyuan, Guangdong Province, China. The comparative case-study research design included in-depth interviews, document analysis and a household study in each case-study village. The comparative case study provides insights into factors contributing to socially sustainable ethnic tourism in China, including levels of community involvement, control of the tourism ‘product’, the benefits accruing to the ethnic community, perceived inconveniences/externalities and authenticity considerations. This study contributes to a better understanding of socially sustainable ethnic tourism in a Chinese context, and has practical implications for ethnic tourism destination marketing, management and policy-making.

Comparative case studies often rely on a practice known as selecting on the dependent variable. This technique involves choosing some phenomenon of political interest, gathering data on occurrences of the phenomenon, then determining what characteristics the occurrences have in common. A methodological strategy with a long history, selecting on the dependent variable has found numerous applications in political science, including the study of economic growth, social revolutions, and international conflict.' Selecting on the dependent variable has provided an important method for gathering information when there is relatively little data, though it is not limited to such situations. Its use has recently come under rather sharp attack. If observations are selected based on the value of the dependent variable, then estimates obtained by ordinary least squares will be biased. This bias can not be corrected by the introduction of control variables. Gathering more data will not solve the problem; the bias remains even if the number of observations goes to infinity. In short, inferences drawn from cases selected on the dependent variable are highly suspect.2 Impressive treatments of the problem from the position of comparative case study work have been presented by Barbara Geddes and by Gary King, Robert Keohane, and Sidney Verba.3 They have not only alerted the discipline to an important problem but have suggested concrete ways to deal with problems of selection bias.4 I would like to offer a qualified defense of analyses of a small number of cases selected on the dependent variable. As is well-known, selecting on the dependent variable is perfectly admissible if one is evaluating necessary (as opposed to sufficient) conditions.5 However, with a few exceptions, this argument has gone unnoticed in the debate on case selection.6 By concentrating on the logic of testing necessary conditions, this paper attempts to show that the methodological implications of selecting on the dependent variable are much less threatening to the validity of small-n comparative case study work than has often been claimed.

Case study research though increasingly popular in social sciences for positivist and intrepretivist research, a kind of confusion is prevalent when it is used ignoring its philosophical position. Arguably, the case study research is considered more appropriate for qualitative research because of its foremost strength ˗ the in-depth study of complex issues. This paper, drawing from the literature, discusses the philosophical position of case study research and argues that qualitative case study research is appropriate for theory building. For theory building, this paper follows the inductive approach guided by qualitative research paradigm and argues that it is not appropriate to assess theory building from the perspective of quantitative research. Very similar to other research methods, it is natural that the case study research has certain challenges; however, most of the challenges and misunderstandings overlap causing difficulty to understand the role of case study research. Hence, this paper aims to contribute to the understandings of the challenges and misunderstandings associated with the theory building from case study research. This paper argues that most of the challenges associated with theory building from case study can be addressed employing appropriate research strategies particularly clear understanding of philosophical stance and selection of appropriate case. The misunderstandings, on the other hand, are arisen due to the differences in the researcher’s perspectives particularly positivistic thinking of them rather than the shortcomings inherent in the qualitative case study research design.

Triangulation in industrial qualitative case study research: Widening the scope

To explore the use and application of case study research in midwifery. Case study research provides rich data for the analysis of complex issues and interventions in the healthcare disciplines; however, a gap in the midwifery research literature was identified. A methodological review of midwifery case study research using recognizedtemplates, frameworks and reporting guidelines facilitated comprehensive analysis. An electronic database search using the date range January 2005-December 2014: Maternal and Infant Care, CINAHL Plus, Academic Search Complete, Web of Knowledge, SCOPUS, Medline, Health Collection (Informit), Cochrane Library Health Source: Nursing/Academic Edition, Wiley online and ProQuest Central. Narrative evaluation was undertaken. Clearly worded questions reflected the problem and purpose. The application, strengths and limitations of case study methods were identified through a quality appraisal process. The review identified both case study research's applicability to midwifery and its low uptake, especially in clinical studies. Many papers included the necessary criteria to achieve rigour. The included measures of authenticity and methodology were varied. A high standard of authenticity was observed, suggesting authors considered these elements to be routine inclusions. Technical aspects were lacking in many papers, namely a lack of reflexivity and incomplete transparency of processes. This review raises the profile of case study research in midwifery. Midwives will be encouraged to explore if case study research is suitable for their investigation. The raised profile will demonstrate further applicability; encourage support and wider adoption in the midwifery setting.

Despite the advantages of the case study method, its reliability and validity remain in doubt. Tests to establish the validity and reliability of qualitative data are important to determine the stability and quality of the data obtained. However, there is no single, coherent set of validity and reliability tests for each research phase in case study research available in the literature. This article presents an argument for the case study method in marketing research, examining various criteria for judging the quality of the method and highlighting various techniques, which can be addressed to achieve objectivity, and rigorous and relevant information for planning to marketing actions. The purpose of this article is to invite further research by discussing the use of various scientific techniques for establishing the validity and reliability in case study research. The article provides guidelines for achieving high validity and reliability for each phase in case study research.