CARBON CAPTURE, USAGE AND STORAGE

The framework MESSAGE from the IIASA fulfills the IPCC requirement RCP 2.6. To achieve this, it proposes the use of massive deployment of Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage (CCS), dealing with tens of billion tons of CO2. However, present knowledge of this process rests on a few experiments at the annual million tons level. MESSAGE includes three scenarios: 'Supply' with a high energy consumption; 'Efficiency' which implies the end of nuclear energy and the intermediary 'MIX'. We propose, as a variant of the MESSAGE framework, to initiate a sustained deployment of nuclear production in 2020, reaching a total nuclear power around 20,000 GWe by the year 2100. Our scenarios considerably reduce the interest or necessity for CCS. Renouncing nuclear power requires an energy consumption reduction of more than 40% compared to the 'Supply' scenario, without escaping the need to store more than 15 billion tons of CO2.

threat posed in emitting CO2. In 2010 Nigeria was ranked 44 th by the International Energy Agency (IEA) for emitting about 80.51 million metric tons of CO2 annually. In this paper, the three different stages that constitute carbon capture and sequestration are discussed individually, and then the potential for their integration into a commercial scale CCS process is considered. CCS technology shows promising possibility for application in plants that emit large amounts of CO2 and also considered are some technological improvements to capture CO2 from air, as the technology can be applied for removing CO2 directly from the atmosphere and thus reducing the effect of emissions from vehicles and other moving sources. The development and deployment of CCS in Nigeria will be very significant in ensuring that we are able to meet increasing energy demand and keep the lights on whilst minimizing the environmental damage. The market for CCS in Nigeria is likely to be measured in $billions with the potential of creating over 100,000 jobs.

Myhrvold and Caldeira worked out the climate consequences of various ways in which the world's current fleet of coal power plants could evolve into something different [1]. They imagined one-fortieth of the world's coal plants being closed down each year for 40 years. Two limiting cases are (1) nothing is built to take the place of this power, because efficiency gains have made them unnecessary, and (2) coal plants exactly like those now running take their place. Since coal power is the most carbon-intensive form of power, all other options fall between these limits. They looked at six single-technology alternatives: taking over from coal as we know it are coal with carbon dioxide capture and storage, natural gas, nuclear power and three forms of intermittent renewables (presented as baseload options). Moreover, whatever the alternative, it remains in place unchanged from year 40 through year 100.

For carbon capture and storage (CCS) to be a truly effective option in our efforts to mitigate climate change, it must be sustainable. That means that CCS must deliver consistent environmental and social benefits which exceed its costs of capital, energy and operation; it must be protective of the environment and human health over the long term; and it must be suitable for deployment on a significant scale. CCS is one of the more expensive and technically challenging carbon emissions abatement options available, and CCS must first and foremost be considered in the context of the other things that can be done to reduce emissions, as a part of an overall optimally efficient, sustainable and economic mitigation plan. This elevates the analysis beyond a simple comparison of the cost per tonne of CO2 abated—there are inherent tradeoffs with a range of other factors (such as water, NOx, SOx, biodiversity, energy, and human health and safety, among others) which must also be considered if we are to achieve truly sustainable mitigation. The full life-cycle cost of CCS must be considered in the context of the overall social, environmental and economic benefits which it creates, and the costs associated with environmental and social risks it presents. Such analysis reveals that all CCS is not created equal. There is a wide range of technological options available which can be used in a variety of industries and applications—indeed CCS is not applicable to every industry. Stationary fossil-fuel powered energy and large scale petroleum industry operations are two examples of industries which could benefit from CCS. Capturing and geo-sequestering CO2 entrained in natural gas can be economic and sustainable at relatively low carbon prices, and in many jurisdictions makes financial sense for operators to deploy now, if suitable secure disposal reservoirs are available close by. Retrofitting existing coal-fired power plants, however, is more expensive and technically challenging, and the economic sustainability of post-combustion capture retrofit needs to be compared on a portfolio basis to the relative overall net benefit of CCS on new-build plants, where energy efficiency can be optimised as a first step, and locations can be selected with sequestration sites in mind. Examples from the natural gas processing, liquefied natural gas (LNG), and coal-fired power generation sectors, illustrate that there is currently a wide range of financial costs for CCS, depending on how and where it is applied, but equally, environmental and social benefits of emissions reduction can be considerable. Some CCS applications are far more economic and sustainable than others. CCS must be considered in the context of the other things that a business can do to eliminate emissions, such as far-reaching efforts to improve energy efficiency.

Evaluating Carbon Capture and Storage in a Climate Model with Directed Technical Change

In its latest assessment report the IPCC stresses the need for carbon dioxide removal (CDR) to counterbalance residual emissions to achieve net zero carbon dioxide or greenhouse gas emissions. There are currently a wide variety of CDR measures available. Their potential and feasibility, however, depends on context specific conditions, as among others biophysical site characteristics, or availability of infrastructure and resources. In our study, we selected 13 CDR concepts which we present in the form of exemplary CDR units described in dedicated fact sheets. They cover technical CO2 removal (two concepts of direct air carbon capture), hybrid solutions (six bioenergy with carbon capture technologies) and five options for natural sink enhancement. Our estimates for their CO2 removal potentials in 2050 range from 0.06 to 30 million tons of CO2, depending on the option. Ten of the 13 CDR concepts provide technical removal potentials higher than 1 million tons of CO2 per year. To better understand the potential contribution of analyzed CDR options to reaching net-zero CO2 emissions, we compare our results with the current CO2 emissions and potential residual CO2 emissions in 2050 in Germany. To complement the necessary information on technology-based and hybrid options, we also provide an overview on possible solutions for CO2 storage for Germany. Taking biophysical conditions and infrastructure into account, northern Germany seems a preferable area for deployment of many concepts. However, for their successful implementation further socio-economic analysis, clear regulations, and policy incentives are necessary.

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is necessary to achieve the long-term temperature goals of the Paris Agreement. The mass of CO₂ that will be transported for permanent storage by 2050, to meet the International Energy Agency (IEA)'s Sustainable Development Scenario, is of a similar scale to the current global market of natural gas. Such trading levels require significant and expedited technological efforts. The urgency of the climate goals requires technological innovations to build from existing technologies operating in similar environments. The present work aims to be a stepping stone towards the realisation of the CCS business, which relies on accurate metrology and tight control systems. Here, various established technologies are screened, and for each principle, their possible niches of operation within CCS are identified. Eight technologies were shortlisted and assessed against selected benchmarking criteria. The most promising solutions for the various operative scenarios encompassing bulk flow measurement, structural flow identification, composition, and leak detection are described. All surveyed technologies require further experimental verification for one or more of the operating schemes throughout the CCS value chain. A roadmap to further explore the applicability of various measurement principles in CCS is also provided.

As a result of global aspirations to achieve energy transition along with the desire to ensure energy security, energy exporters proposed a series of new ‘carbon-neutral’ products – liquefied natural gas (LNG) and oil. In 2019, a new market was officially born after the first-in-history shipment of carbon-neutral LNG cargo from Shell to Japanese Tokyo Gas. Until 2021, it grew rapidly, however in 2022, announcements about volumes delivered to the customers significantly dropped. In this paper, we will explore the reasons for this dynamic, review perspectives of the carbon-neutral fuels markets, and explore the potential steps that producers and consumers could undertake to achieve global climate targets. We specifically focus on the consequences of implementing carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies. Based on the data on the world CCS facilities, provided by the International Energy Agency, we conduct preliminary analysis of the capital costs associated with the construction of carbon capture, utilisation, and storage facilities. After that, we apply the cost estimation method (class 5) based on the US Department of Energy Classification, to estimate the costs of using CCS for emissions management in different regions/countries. As a result, the study demonstrates that due to the various economic, geographical and infrastructural limitations, it is more feasible to implement CCS on the producer’s side than on the consumer’s side. We also show what level of CCS implementation within the LNG value chain is economically feasible for different market participants and what the costs are.

Emissions of long-lived greenhouse gases are believed to be a major driver of climate change. Carbon dioxide is the most important greenhouse gas[1] and one of the most prominent strategies to lower its emissions is carbon capture and sequestration (CCS)[2]. CO2 can be stored in geological repositories, in which sodium chloride (NaCl) is the most common dissolved salt. For the optimum design of any CCS process, accurate experimental data and computational models are necessary. This study focuses on generating and validating molecular-based models and methodologies to allow for reliable prediction of the thermodynamic and transport properties of CO2-brine mixtures over a broad range of temperatures and pressures relevant for geological storage. We employ Atomistic Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulations, which is widely used to predict phase equilibria, transport, and other properties of gases, liquids etc. The current study aims at: (a)Determining the accuracy of current molecular models over a broad range of temperatures, pressures and salt concentration relevant to CCS processes with respect to phase behavior and transport properties of CO2 - H2O - NaCl mixture, (b)Developing efficient computational methods and improved potential models for these properties, (c) Assessing the accuracy of SAFT/PC-SAFT based models for the phase behavior of CO2-H2O-NaCl mixture and improving the models using also data generated through molecular simulations and (d)Developing appropriate engineering models for the correlation of viscosity and self-diffusion coefficient experimental and molecular simulation data for the CO2-H2O-NaCl mixture. More specifically, in this work, we study the mutual solubility and interfacial tension in the CO2-H2O-NaCl system over a broad range of temperatures, pressures and NaCl concentrations, using direct interfacial MD simulations. Also we calculate transport properties such as viscosity, self-diffusion coefficient, thermal conductivity. Additionally, we assess the predictive abilities of several combinations of existing H2O, CO2 and NaCl models. To describe water, CO2 and NaCl we use various intermolecular potential models[4,5,6,7,8] that provide property predictions for the CO2-H2O-NaCl mixture over a broad range of temperature, pressure and composition. In addition, the estimated accuracy of the model for each property and for specific conditions will be reported. Our group takes advantage of recent developments of efficiently parallelized codes such as LAMMPS[9] and GROMACS[10]. [1] Metz B, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Working Group III. Climate Change 2007: Mitigation of Climate Change: Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IInter-governmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press (2007). [2] International Energy Agency, A Policy Strategy for Carbon Capture and Storage (2012). [3] Jorgensen, W.L. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 103(2), 335 - 340 (1981). [4] Berendsen, H.J.C., Grigera, J.R. and Straatsma, T.P., J. Chem. Phys., 91(24), 6269 - 6271 (1987). [5] Harris, J.G. and Yung, K.H. J. Phys. Chem., 99(31), 12021 - 12024 (1995). [6] Potoff, J.J. and Siepmann, J.I. AlChE J., 47(7), 1676 - 1682 (2001). [7] Smith, D.E. and Dang, L.X. J. Chem. Phys., 100(5), 3757 - 3766 (1994). [8] Deublein, S., Reiser, S., Vrabec, J. and Hasse H. to appear (2012). [9] See: http://lammps.sandia.gov/. [10] See: http://www.gromacs.org/.

The decarbonization of Utah’s coal-fired power plants is essential for achieving the state and federal climate policy targets, including the Utah Roadmap objective of a 50% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2030 and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) proposal to achieve a 90% reduction in CO₂ emissions from power generation by 2035. This study presents a comprehensive parametric analysis to evaluate the technical, economic, and regulatory implications of retrofitting Utah’s coal-fired power plants with carbon capture and storage (CCS). Three coal-fired power plants were examined, collectively consisting of six electric generating units (EGUs). The Bonanza unit was selected as a case study to explore the influence of different operational parameters, policy frameworks, and economic factors. Three CO₂ capture technologies including: amine-based absorption, solid adsorption, and membrane separation are assessed. Among these, amine-based absorption demonstrates superior performance, offering higher net power output, improved thermal efficiency, and lower costs across all evaluated economic metrics. Capture efficiency emerged as a critical parameter in the analysis, increasing CO₂ capture rate from 85% to 95% significantly reduced emissions and the cost per ton of CO₂ captured, but also led to higher parasitic energy loads, cooling water demand, and levelized cost of electricity (LCOE). The impact of plant operating mode showed that ultra-supercritical systems delivered higher efficiency and lower emissions, whereas subcritical plants were more economically viable due to lower capital costs. Incorporating a natural gas auxiliary system improved net plant efficiency and water use but increased the LCOE due to high gas prices and limited operational lifespan in Utah. Sensitivity to coal price was linear, with a 25% reduction in coal cost significantly improving LCOE and CO₂ mitigation economics. Capacity factor had a strong influence, with higher utilization rates substantially lowering all cost metrics. From a policy perspective, imposing taxes on CO₂ emissions raised project costs; a breakeven tax of ~$83/ton of CO2 was needed to make CCS competitive with the base/existing case (Without CCS). In contrast, the 45Q federal tax credit had a strong positive effect: a $20/ton credit enabled CCS feasibility for most EGUs, while credits above $60/ton led to negative CO₂ avoidance costs. The results confirm that CCS viability hinges not on any single factor but on the alignment of capture technology, efficiency, fuel economics, and incentive structures. A hybrid policy combining carbon emission taxation with targeted tax credits as well as capturing efficiencies technological advancements presents the most viable path to enabling deep decarbonization in Utah’s aging coal fleet.

Oil provides 33% of the world’s energy (Wilcox, 2014) and transportation engines account for over 60% of the 70 million barrels of crude used each day. Engines power the world’s roughly one billion passenger vehicles, as well as trucks and heavy-duty vehicles. In theUSA, engines consume 14million barrels of oil per day or 2.5 gal/person. Since there are insufficient reserves, 62% is imported, and at current prices (e.g., $80 a barrel), the USA spends about 1 billion dollars a day on imported oil. is also impacts national security. It is unreasonable to think that this vast consumption of fuel is sustainable. But prospects for replacing the IC engine with more fuel efficient and cleaner power plants are not hopeful. Indeed, a recent report (NRC, 2011) concluded that “. . .the internal combustion engine (ICE) will be the dominant prime mover for light-duty vehicles for many years, probably decades. us, it is clearly important to perform R&D to provide a better understanding of the fundamental processes affecting engine efficiency and the production of undesirable emissions.” Also, there is no obvious alternative to the IC engine for mediumand heavy-duty commercial vehicles, which account for a quarter of all fuel used (mostly diesel). e fuel used by IC engines also has a major impact on our global environment. Burning one 1 kg of fuel consumes about 15 kg of air, and signi cant energy is required to pump it into and out of the engine. In addition, about 3 kg of CO2 is generated, which contributes to the world’s annual production of 37 billion tons of CO2, a major green house gas (GHG). Some fear that GHGs can cause climate change with unpredictable consequences. To address this problem, the International Energy Agency’s roadmap is to reduce fuel use by 30–50% in new road vehicles worldwide by 2030, and in all vehicles by 2050 (IEA, 2012). Although 2050 appears distant, the time required to bring new engines to production, together with the years needed for new technology to permeate the vehicle eet, means that major effort (and investment) will be required. us, the grand challenge faced by engine and automotive engineering researchers over the next decades will be to devise technological advances thatmaximize engine efficiency, minimize pollutant emissions, and optimize tolerance to a wider variety of fuels in power generation and transportation systems.

190 pp. £12.95 (hard) Peter English Gethyn Burgess Ricardo Secundo John Dunne Stockmanship. Improving the Care of the Pig and Other Livestock 1992 Farming Press Books London

Climate Change is affecting every industry including the Primary Aluminium industry. The International Energy Agency has developed several strategies how to abate GHG emissions on large industrial scale. One of the tools identified to abate CO2 emissions from large sources is carbon capture and sequestration (CCS). Earlier papers have touched on the topic of using CCS in primary smelters and in this paper further details are shown of technological aspects of CCS, but also on some of the specific conditions that have to be dealt with when applied in primary aluminium smelters. Conclusions are presented.

The Royal Dutch Shell Group (Shell)1 was one of the first energy companies to acknowledge the threat of climate change - to call for action by governments; our industry and energy users; and to take action ourselves. Shell's strategy: to expand our alternative energies portfolio, while investing in advanced CO2 solutions in order to improve our ability to manage emissions from our hydrocarbon business. Measures to manage future emissions will include developing new technologies to capture and store CO2 underground. The pursuit of Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) technologies allows Shell to play an important and leading role towards addressing the need for an increasing worldwide demand for energy, while at the same time dealing with the need to reduce global emissions. No single universal policy or technology will solve the CO2 challenge. Therefore, various CCS solutions will need to be considered within a portfolio of measures to reduce global CO2 emissions while assisting a transition towards a low-carbon energy future. Shell seeks to position itself as part of the solution to the climate change issue. The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has identified CO2 capture and storage (CCS) as the most promising for the rapid reduction of global emissions - by up to 55% by 21002. As the bridge to a more sustainable energy system, it is therefore a key solution for combating climate change - among a portfolio of solutions, including renewable energies, energy efficiency and biofuels In order to achieve deeper reductions in CO2 emissions there will need to be new technologies brought to the market to enable a ‘Kyoto 2’ type-agreement. Authorities such as the International Energy Agency, the European Union Commission for Research and the US Department of Energy predict that new technologies will include hydrogen fuels cells, clean coal technology, and storage of CO2 below ground – in deep saline formations or redundant reservoirs, or for enhanced oil recovery. Considerable attention is being focused on CO2 storage with the desire to reduce the cost of capture and storage below 25 $/t CO2. Shell has a special team working on the CO2 Capture Project (CCP) Joint Industry Project. For the CCP Shell carries out studies, manages projects and the team is involved evaluating opportunities for deployment of the technologies within Shell. Shell also provides the Vice Chairman for this initiative and has several key-players working on this project. CCP is an international collaboration among industry, governments, academics and environmental interest groups focused on developing technology for CO2 capture and geological storage. The CO2 Capture Team (CCT) conducts Shell's participation in the CO2 Capture Project (CCP) and other external programs. CCT also works internally to apply external learnings and technologies within Shell businesses. Additionally, Shell's research and development funds and manages a separate CO2 storage program. Our goals are to: reduce the cost of capture by 60 to 80%, anddemonstrate that geological storage can be secure.

To meet next generation energy needs such as wind- and solar-generated electricity, enhanced oil recovery (EOR), CO2 capture and storage (CCS), and biofuels, the US will have to construct tens to hundreds of thousands of kilometers of new transmission lines and pipelines. Energy network models are central to optimizing these energy resources, including how best to produce, transport, and deliver energy-related products such as oil, natural gas, electricity, and CO2. Consequently, understanding how to model new transmission lines and pipelines is central to this process. However, current energy models use simplifying assumptions for deploying pipelines and transmission lines, leading to the design of more costly and inefficient energy networks. In this paper, we introduce a two-stage optimization approach for modeling CCS infrastructure. We show how CO2 pipelines with discrete capacities can be 'linearized' without loss of information and accuracy, therefore allowing necessarily complex energy models to be solved. We demonstrate the new approach by designing a CCS network that collects large volumes of anthropogenic CO2 (up to 45 million tonnes of CO2 per year) from ethylene production facilities and delivers the CO2 to depleted oil fields to stimulate recovery through EOR. Utilization of anthropogenic CO2 has great potential to jumpstart commercial-scale CCS while simultaneously reducing the carbon footprint of domestic oil production. Model outputs illustrate the engineering challenge and spatial extent of CCS infrastructure, as well as the costs (or profits) of deploying CCS technology. We show that the new linearized approach is able to offer insights that other network approaches cannot reveal and how the approach can change how we develop future energy systems including transporting massive volumes of shale gas and biofuels as well as electricity transmission for wind and solar energy. Published 2012. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.