Chapter 18 - Small millet improvement using molecular breeding approaches

Millets contain anti-nutritional factors which limits their use in processed food products. Pre-treatments processes of these traditional grains such a germination and roasting have potential to reduce the anti-nutritional factors. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the effect of germination and roasting on the proximate, and antinutritional content of three varieties of millet. These grains were germinated, and roasted and milled into flour. Three treatments namely, unprocessed millets (A1, B1 and C1), germinated millets (A2, B2, and C2), and roasted millets (A3, B3, and C3) processed finger millet, foxtail and proso millet were prepared. The results showed that millet processing i.e. germination significantly increased the protein content, moisture content, ash content, and fiber content whereas slightly decrease the fat content. Similarly, roasting significantly increased the crude fiber content and ash content whereas reduced the moisture, protein and fat content respectively. Both germination and roasting significantly reduced the phytate, tannin and oxalate content. Germination led to a notable reduction in tannin levels across all three millet varieties, yielding values of 29.45 mg/100 g, 15.80 mg/100 g, and 17.97 mg/100 g. The phytate content decreased from 374.94 to 223.36 mg/100 g, from 431.44 to 205.9 mg/100 g, and from 326.12 to 248.13 mg/100 g, respectively. Finally, the oxalate concentrations were lowered from 21.43 mg/100 g to 9.88 mg/100 g, from 7.1 mg/100 g to 5.06 mg/100 g, and from 7.95 mg/100 g to 5.4 mg/100 g in finger, foxtail, and proso millet, respectively, indicating reductions of 53.9%, 30.1%, and 32.1%. Similarly, roasting, significantly decreased the levels of tannins, phytates, and oxalates in finger millet, foxtail millet, and proso millet

Small millets, also known as nutri‐cereals, belong to the grass family Poaceae that have tiny seeds and are drought and heat tolerant, besides being powerhouse of nutrition, hence making them ideal crops that shall combat not just food and nutritional security but also adapt well to the changing climatic conditions. They grow well on marginal soil and require least resources for their cultivation. Nutritional superiority to popularly cultivated major cereals makes them a magnificent alternative food especially in the age of lifestyle related disorders. In this review, we provide insights of the initial commencement of research on small millets and deliberate the breeding progress based on conventional and genomics‐based approaches. The small millets under discussion are finger millet, foxtail millet, proso millet, little millet, barnyard millet, kodo millet and browntop millet. The major focus here is to recapitulate the breeding activities in the above‐mentioned millets rather than providing a way forward for breeding small millets.

Gelatinisation and Rheological Characteristics of Minor Millet Flours

Small millets are climate smart cereals and they are rich in fibre, protein and minerals which are essential for human good health. Now days, number of nations including India suffering from malnutrition. The aim of investigation is to know what factors influence on nutrients of small millets are. presently There were eight different genotypes were taken from four small millet crops viz., Finger millet, foxtail millet, proso millet and little millet and experiments were carried out in Hanumanamatti and Dhrwad in zone -8 and Mudhol in zone-3 of Karnataka. These genotypes produced protein range from 7.05 per cent (DHFM-78-3 at finger millet) to 11.975 per cent (DHPM-2769 in proso millet), iron content recorded range from1.437 mg/100 g (karisavi grain) to 5.686 mg/ 100 (DHPM-2769in proso millet at Dharwad). Variability of manganese range between 0.0962 mg/ 100 g (DHPM-2769 at Dharwad) to 0.931 mg /100g of (DHFM-78-3 in finger millet at Hanumanamatti), while copper range from 0.207 mg /100 g (DHLM-36-3 in little millet at Hanumanamatti) to 0.934 mg/100 g (DHLM-36-3 in little millet at Mudhol). The zinc content varied from 0.364 mg/100g (Mallesavi in little millet at Hanumanamatti) to 1.262 mg/100g of grain (DHPM-2769, Mudhol).

Small millets are highly nutritious crops and are rich source of macronutrients, micronutrients, and phytochemicals. Owing to their agrarian as well as nutritional qualities, these have the potential to provide food and nutrition security. Macronutrient profile of small millets is similar to that of major cereals like wheat and rice; however, small millets score higher in terms of micronutrients and phytochemicals. Finger millet is a source of good quality protein and has a sound amino acid profile. Among cereals and millets, it is the richest source of calcium and is also good source of iron and phosphorus. The therapeutic properties of finger millet can be attributed to its high dietary fiber and phenolic content. The protein content of foxtail millet is higher than that of widely consumed major cereals such as rice and maize. Foxtail millet and its bran is rich in polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) such as linoleic acid. Foxtail millet is a good source of dietary fiber and several minerals. Antioxidants present in foxtail millet exhibit effective inhibition of free radicals action. Apart from minerals, kodo millet is a good source of dietary fiber, antioxidants, and polyphenols and can be used as a nutraceutical. Barnyard millet contains highly digestible protein. It is also a good source of dietary fiber, iron, niacin, and thiamine. Proso and little millets are rich sources of mineral, B vitamins, dietary fiber, and phytochemicals and antioxidants.KeywordsSmall milletsNutritiousMacronutrientsMicronutrientsPhytochemicals

Indices of forage nutritional yield and water use efficiency amongst spring-sown annual forage crops in north-west China

Influence of malted buckwheat, foxtail and proso millet flour incorporation on the physicochemical, protein digestibility and antioxidant properties of gluten-free rice cookies

<strong class="journal-contentHeaderColor">Abstract.</strong> Millet agriculture, i.e., broomcorn millet (<em>Panicum miliaceum</em>) and foxtail millet (<em>Setaria italica</em>), were initially originated in northern China and provided the basis for the emergence of the first state in the Central Plains. However, owing to the lack of a comprehensive archaeobotanical dataset, when, where, and how these two millet types evolved across different regions and periods remains unclear. Here, we presented a dataset of archaeobotanical macroremains (n = 538) spanning the Neolithic and Bronze Ages in northern China and suggested a significant spatiotemporal divergence of millet agriculture in the subhumid mid-lower Yellow River (MLY) and semiarid agro-pastoral ecotone (APE). The key timing of the diffusion and transition of millet agriculture occurred around 6000 cal. a BP, coinciding with the Holocene Optimum and Miaodigou Age. It spread westward and northward from the MLY to the APE and underwent a dramatic transition from low-yield broomcorn millet to high-yield foxtail millet. The combined influence of warm-wet climate, population pressure, and field management may have promoted the intensification, diffusion, and transition of millet agriculture around 6000 cal. a BP. Thereafter, the cropping patterns in the MLY were predominated by foxtail millet (~ 80 %), while those in the APE emphasized on both foxtail (~ 60 %) and broomcorn millet under a persistent drying trend since the mid-Holocene. This study provided the first quantitative spatiotemporal cropping patterns during the Neolithic and Bronze Age in northern China, which can be used for evaluating prehistoric human subsistence, discussing past human-environment interaction, and providing a valuable perspective of agricultural sustainability for the future. The dataset is publicly available at <a href="https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6410368" target="_blank" rel="noopener">https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6410368</a> (He et al., 2022)

Phytoliths are silica bodies formed in living plant tissues, and they can be reliable indicators of their parent plants when they demonstrate characteristic phytolith morphology. As shown by the growing case studies around the globe, phytolith morphology is of significant value for identifying and even quantifying domesticated plants. However, researchers also alert that phytoliths morphology can change, for example, in alkaline solutions or heat, causing the loss of characteristic phytoliths and eventually leading to the over- or under-identification of certain phytoliths. Focusing on the degree to which heat can cause changes to the phytolith morphology of millet, the present study carried out a series of controlled heating experiments on six varieties of modern common millet (Panicum miliaceum) growing in different regions of Northern China. Husked grains were heated following the dry ashing method. Specimens prepared from the dry ashing method were examined under an optical microscope to quantify articulated husk phytoliths, which are characteristic millet phytoliths, and to estimate the surface area of millet grains. We estimated that 30.8% to 59.5% of the common millet phytoliths underwent morphological damage in the heating experiments. Considering our previous heating experiments on foxtail millet, we conclude that compared to foxtail millet phytoliths, common millet phytoliths experience morphological damage more quickly when exposed to heat. This observation may explain (at least partially) the contradictory results between macro- and micro-botanical results. It reminds us that common millet can be underrepresented in the micro-botanical evidence (phytoliths). We conclude the paper by discussing the potential archaeological implications of our heating experiments.

This paper reports development of a thresher for small grain cereal crops. Target small grain cereal crops were sorghum, proso millet, and foxtail millet. A commercially available 2.2-kW soybean thresher was used as a main body, and major design parameters such as rotational speed of the threshing drum (i.e., speed of threshing teeth), opening size of the screen to remove stem part, and air velocity to separate dust and grain. First, design parameters were determined to minimize grain loss to stem and dust discharging exits through factor experiments. For sorghum, selected air velocity, speed of threshing teeth, and opening size of the screen were 4.5 m/s, 13.5 ~ 14.6 m/s, and 10 ~ 12 mm, respectively. For proso millet and foxtail millet, air velocity values were 2.62 and 2.40 m/s, respectively. Teeth velocity was 15.7 m/s and screen opening was 8 ~ 10 mm. Second, a prototype thresher was constructed using the determined design parameters and the performance was evaluated. For sorghum, grain loss weight through stem and dust discharging exits was 5.6% of the total grain weight, and 96.9% of the materials discharged from the grain exit was grain. For proso and foxtail millets, grain loss ratios were 6.47 and 2.18%, respectively. Production cost of the small grain cereal crops would be reduced considerably with utilization of the developed thresher.

Plants have repeatedly undergone whole-genome duplication during their evolutionary history. Even in modern plants, there is diversity in ploidy within and between species, providing a snapshot of the evolutionary turnover of ploidy. Here, I will review the diversity of ploidy and the evolution of the genome constitution, focusing on the millet species Setaria italica, Panicum miliaceum, and Echinochloa esculenta. These are all historically important cereal crops that have been domesticated in East Asia. They all display a basic chromosome set of nine, but they are diploid, tetraploid, and hexaploid, respectively. The timing of ploidy is different among the millet species, as is the extent of gene family expansion and gene loss. There also exists complex subgenomic evolution in the wild species within each genus. These three millet species and their related wild species are suitable models for elucidating the molecular evolution and diversity of genome duplication by comparative genomic analysis.

This review comprehensively explores the genetic diversity of millets in India and its pivotal role in enhancing crop resilience, adapting to climate change, and contributing to nutritional security. Millets, with their remarkable adaptability to diverse agro-ecological conditions, are integral to India's agricultural landscape. The review starts by providing an overview of the various types of millets cultivated in India, including pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum), finger millet (Eleusine coracana), and foxtail millet (Setaria italica), highlighting their nutritional and environmental benefits and their historical and cultural significance. The core of the review delves into the genetic structure and variability among millet species, examining both intra-species and inter-species diversity. It emphasizes the importance of conserving this genetic diversity, which is currently threatened by factors such as genetic erosion and limited access to genetic resources. The review discusses the advances in millet breeding techniques, from conventional approaches to biotechnological interventions, and underscores the importance of integrating traditional agricultural knowledge with modern science. A series of case studies from India illustrates the successful examples of millet genetic improvement, the lessons learned from past breeding programs, and the tangible impacts of improved millet varieties on farming communities. These case studies highlight the development of drought-resistant, pest-resistant, and nutritionally enhanced millet varieties, demonstrating the benefits of genetic diversity in practical terms. Looking forward, the review identifies emerging trends in millet research in India, including the increasing focus on genomics and bioinformatics, climate-smart agriculture, and the enhancement of the nutritional qualities of millets. It also addresses the policy and funding considerations vital for advancing millet research, emphasizing the need for supportive policies that promote the cultivation and consumption of millets and the importance of funding for research focused on genetic improvement and climate resilience.

Nutritional insecurity is a major threat to the world’s population that is highly dependent on cereals-based diet, deficient in micronutrients. Next to cereals, millets are the primary sources of energy in the semi-arid tropics and drought-prone regions of Asia and Africa. Millets are nutritionally superior as their grains contain high amount of proteins, essential amino acids, minerals, and vitamins. Biofortification of staple crops is proved to be an economically feasible approach to combat micronutrient malnutrition. HarvestPlus group realized the importance of millet biofortification and released conventionally bred high iron pearl millet in India to tackle iron deficiency. Molecular basis of waxy starch has been identified in foxtail millet, proso millet, and barnyard millet to facilitate their use in infant foods. With close genetic-relatedness to cereals, comparative genomics has helped in deciphering quantitative trait loci and genes linked to protein quality in finger millet. Recently, transgenic expression of zinc transporters resulted in the development of high grain zinc while transcriptomics revealed various calcium sensor genes involved in uptake, translocation, and accumulation of calcium in finger millet. Biofortification in millets is still limited by the presence of antinutrients like phytic acid, polyphenols, and tannins. RNA interference and genome editing tools [zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs), transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs), and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)] needs to be employed to reduce these antinutrients. In this review paper, we discuss the strategies to accelerate biofortification in millets by summarizing the opportunities and challenges to increase the bioavailability of macro and micronutrients.

This study was conducted to understand the variation in the nutrient contents of different types of millets by collecting data from published scientific journals and collating it by variety. The data is analyzed as a whole and as a subset, where it is clearly categorized into a released variety or genotype/accession. Calcium level was consistently high in finger millet and teff regardless of varieties at 331.29 ± 10 mg/100 g and 183.41 ± 29 mg/100 g, respectively. Iron content was highest for finger millet at 12.21 ± 13.69 mg/100 g followed by teff at 11.09 ± 8.35 mg/100 g. Pearl millet contained the highest zinc content of 8.73 ± 11.55 mg/100 g. Protein content was highest in job’s tears at 12.66 g/100 g followed by proso millet at 12.42 ± 1.99 g/100 g and barnyard millet with 12.05 ± 1.77 g/100 g. Some millets showed consistently low or consistently high levels of specific nutrients, while others had such wide variation that they could not be characterized as high or low for that particular nutrient. There is a huge variation in the nutrient content of each type of millet regardless of the released variety or genotype. In the interest of improving dietary nutrients, there is a need to have nutrition programs and product development based on selected high nutrient varieties of the millet, which requires attention from researchers and government and changes in research, policy, and awareness among the public and private sectors.

Prospects for Non-Traditional Plant Species Cultivated for Forage in Lithuania