Children recognize conflicting intent in testimony.

Schadenfreude is a joyful emotional response to the misfortune of others. Individuals’ schadenfreude over the misfortunes of ingroup and outgroup members may vary depending on how groups interact. Accordingly, this study examines the effects of different social interaction patterns and group identity on schadenfreude and their mechanisms. The study participants were Chinese college students. Study 1 (n = 83) investigated whether there are differences in individuals’ schadenfreude towards ingroup and outgroup members under two different patterns of social interaction: cooperation and competition. On the basis of this study, Study 2 (n = 73) focused on the mechanisms underlying the influence of individuals’ Schadenfreude on ingroup and outgroup members in competitive situations, and the mediating role of disgust. It was found that there was an interaction between group identity and social interaction patterns, with people showing more schadenfreude over the misfortunes of outgroup members than ingroup members, and competitive situations increasing disgust and schadenfreude over outgroup members. However, no differences were found in individuals’ schadenfreude towards ingroup and outgroup members in cooperative situations. This is instructive in terms of real-life intergroup relations as well as patterns of social interaction. This proves that cooperation and group contact is a way to reduce schadenfreude.

In evaluating ingroup versus outgroup members two types of information can be used : 'Categorizing information' related to the target's group membership and 'individuating information' related to pieces of information specific to the target to be judged. Information integration theory (IIT, Anderson, 1981) is applied as a formal tool for predicting the judgement resulting from these different pieces of information. It is further assumed that due to a general positivity bias in evaluating own affairs judges tend to evaluate ingroup members more positively than outgroup members. By applying IIT ingroup favouritism on the level of individual targets can be predicted. More importantly, an interaction concerning an asymmetrical impact of ingroup versus outgroup membership information dependent on the individuating information's valence can be predicted : the enhancement of ingroup members should be stronger for negative individuating information, whereas the devaluation of outgroup members should be stronger for positive individuating information. Further a negative correlation between intragroup differentiation and intergroup differentiation on the level of individual judgements is assumed. In a two (judge's group membership : overestimator versus underestimator) by three (target's group membership information absent ; target's group membership information present as either ingroup, or outgroup member) by three (valence of the individuating information : positive, neutral, negative) factorial minimal group design with repeated measures on the last two factors the targets' likability had to be rated. The findings are in accord with predictions. Theoretical conclusions with respect to social judgement-and to intergroup theories as well as with respect to general approaches to context effects in social judgement are discussed.

Providing potential donors with information about the behavior of others (i.e., social information) is an increasingly used strategy to nudge prosocial decision-making. In the present study, we investigated the effect of ingroup vs. outgroup information on participants' charity preferences by applying a Drift Diffusion Model (DDM) approach. In a joint evaluation scenario, we manipulated different levels of ingroup/outgroup preference ratios for two charities within subjects. Every subject was presented with three stimulus types (i.e., high, medium, and low ingroup ratio) randomized in 294 trials divided into six blocks. We expected that for stimuli with a high ingroup/outgroup ratio, participants should more often and faster decide for the ingroup's most favored charity. We expected that the speed of evidence accumulation will be higher the larger the ingroup/outgroup ratio. Additionally, we investigated whether variations in model parameters can explain individual differences in participants' behaviors. Our results showed that people generally followed ingroup members' preferences when deciding for a charity. However, on finding an unexpected pattern in our results, we conducted post-hoc analyses which revealed two different behavioral strategies used by participants. Based on participants' decisions, we classified them into “equality driven” individuals who preferred stimuli with the least difference between ingroup and outgroup percentages or “ingroup driven” individuals who favored stimuli with the highest ingroup/outgroup ratio. Results are discussed in line with relevant literature, and implications for practitioners are given.

The role of congruence and incongruence in diverse decision-making groups is examined by manipulating opinion agreement within and between members of different social categories. Congruence occurs when ingroup members agree with one another and outgroup members disagree, whereas incongruence occurs when an ingroup member disagrees with a majority composed of ingroup and outgroup members. The results of two studies, one using a scenario methodology and the second using simulated work teams with two ingroup members and one outgroup member, show that regardless of the task-relevance of salient differences, individuals respond most favorably when categorical and opinion differences are congruent. Study 1 examined individuals' emotional reactions and group efficacy. Study 2 examined group performance, the minority influence process, and efforts to maintain congruence. The findings suggest that outgroup minority opinion holders may be more influential in diverse group decision-making settings than ingroup minority opinion holders.

Humans are generally biased to show implicit favoritism for in-group over out-group members, but developmental experiences may alter this process in important ways. Prior work has elucidated associations of family (i.e., in-group) violence exposure in childhood with risk for internalizing symptoms through weakened implicit favoritism for novel in-group members. The present study probes whether childhood violence exposure influences implicit bias and psychopathology differentially depending on the participant's relationship with the perpetrator (i.e., in-group vs. out-group member) at the time of exposure. We administered a minimal group assignment paradigm and implicit association test to 455 young adults aged 18-25. Young adults who experienced out-group violence in childhood showed stronger implicit in-group favoritism compared to those who experienced in-group or no violence. Implicit out-group favoritism was associated with increased alcohol use. Early-life experiences may shape innate preferences for novel in-group vs. out-group members in ways that have lasting implications for mental health.

Chinese University of Hong KongIt is argued that the collectivism of a culture leads to different styles of rewardallocation with in-group and out-group members. Two studies using Chinese andAmerican subjects examined this issue. In the first study an out-group situationwas used, in which subjects were led to believe that they worked with a partnerwhom they would not meet, to obtain a group reward. The collectivistic Chinesesubjects were found to follow the equity norm more closely in dividing the groupreward than the individualistic American subjects when pressure of social evaluationwas removed. In the second study Chinese and American subjects read a scenarioin which an allocator worked with either an in-group or out-group member. Theallocator had either a low or high input and used either the equity or equalitynorm to divide a group reward. Compared with American subjects, Chinesesubjects liked an allocator who divided the group reward equally with an in-groupmember more and regarded such an allocation as fairer. When subjects wereasked to assume that they were the allocator and to hypothetically divide thereward, Chinese subjects followed the equity norm more closely than didAmerican subjects when the recipient was an out-group member or when thesubjects' input was low. However, when the subjects' input was high and therecipient was an in-group member, Chinese subjects followed the equality normmore than did American subjects. These findings are discussed in terms of thedesire for maintaining group solidarity in a collectivist culture.One of the major constructs in theoreticaldiscussions in cross-cultural psychology, so-ciology, and anthropology is that of collectiv-ism-individualism (e.g., Berger, Berger, K Brittan, 1977). However, onlyrecently have we had an empirical basis toevaluate the significance of this construct. Ina large scale survey of beliefs and values in40 countries, Hofstede (1980) extracted fourdimensions of national culture—individual-ism was one of them. In his data the U.S.has the highest score on individualism,whereas countries of a Chinese background(Hong Kong, Singapore, and Taiwan) are onthe collectivistic end of the scale. This resultis consistent with Hsu's (1970) wide-ranging

Humans are generally biased to show implicit favoritism for in-group over out-group members, but developmental experiences may alter this process in important ways. Prior work has elucidated associations of family (i.e., in-group) violence exposure in childhood with risk for internalizing symptoms through weakened implicit favoritism for novel in-group members. The present study probes whether childhood violence exposure influences implicit bias and psychopathology differentially depending on the participant’s relationship with the perpetrator (i.e., in-group vs. out-group member) at the time of exposure. We administered a minimal group assignment paradigm and implicit association test to 455 young adults aged 18-25. Young adults who experienced out-group violence in childhood showed stronger implicit in-group favoritism compared to those who experienced in-group or no violence. Implicit out-group favoritism was associated with increased alcohol use. Early-life experiences may shape innate preferences for novel in-group vs. out-group members in ways that have lasting implications for mental health.

The effect of criss‐crossing two dichotomous social categorizations on intergroup discrimination is studied. One hundred and thirty‐nine 12–13 year old schoolchildren were randomly assigned to five categorization conditions: one simple, division into one ingroup and outgroup; and four crossed, half the ingroup members by one division are outgroup members by a second division and vice versa. Simple subjects rated ingroup and outgroup members; crossed subjects rated members of both ingroups and either simultaneous members of one ingroup and outgroup, or one outgroup and ingroup, or both outgroups, or everybody. Ingroup members were rated more favourably than outgroup members (P < 0.025), this effect varying with experimental condition (P < 0.025). In group bias was found with crossed but not simple categorization and was greatest when members of both ingroups were compared to members of both outgroups. Bias was non‐significant when crossed subjects rated everybody. The significance of the data for earlier work and the explanation of social categorization effects in intergroup behaviour is discussed.

Mortality salience enhances racial in-group bias in empathic neural responses to others' suffering

The association between children's social-status within their peer-group and their prosociality was examined among fourth and sixth graders (N = 276), using sociometric nominations, and actual sharing with a fellow in-group member, or a member of an out-group. Results show an overall increase in sharing with age, and an overall correlation between children's social status among peers and their sharing behavior-however, across both age groups, this association was significant only in the in-group condition, not when the recipient child was an out-group member. Specifically, less accepted children behaved in a less prosocial manner only toward in-group members, not toward out-group ones. This suggests that situational factors and characteristics of the prospective recipient play an important part in the degree to which less socially accepted children are willing to act prosocially. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

What Differences Make a Difference? The Promise and Reality of Diverse Teams in Organizations.

Group identification can lead to a biased view of the world in favor of "in-group" members. Studying the brain processes that underlie such in-group biases is important for a wider understanding of the potential influence of social factors on basic perceptual processes. In this study, we used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to investigate how people perceive the actions of in-group and out-group members, and how their biased view in favor of own team members manifests itself in the brain. We divided participants into two teams and had them judge the relative speeds of hand actions performed by an in-group and an out-group member in a competitive situation. Participants judged hand actions performed by in-group members as being faster than those of out-group members, even when the two actions were performed at physically identical speeds. In an additional fMRI experiment, we showed that, contrary to common belief, such skewed impressions arise from a subtle bias in perception and associated brain activity rather than decision-making processes, and that this bias develops rapidly and involuntarily as a consequence of group affiliation. Our findings suggest that the neural mechanisms that underlie human perception are shaped by social context.

PurposeIn light of Facebook-based viral marketing and social commerce, the purpose of this paper is to test the moderating role of social identification with the Facebook profile owner (celebrity as aspirational reference group vs ingroup member (college student, same school) vs outgroup member (college student, different school)) in Facebook-based fashion brand marketing and management.Design/methodology/approachA randomized between-subjects experiment (celebrity’s Facebook profile vs ingroup member’s Facebook profile vs outgroup member’s Facebook profile vs control condition,n=73) was conducted. The sample was composed of college students recruited from a subject pool in a US university.FindingsResults of multiple regression analyses indicate that social identification with the Facebook profile owner and ingroup vs outgroup perception moderate the influence of consumers’ materialism, fashion involvement and opinion leadership on interpersonal attraction to the celebrity, wishful identification with the celebrity, emotional quotient, involvement with the ads, advertising believability and willingness to buy the advertised fashion products. Furthermore, the results of structural equation modeling analyses show that source credibility perception (both the celebrity who endorses her own brand and the Facebook profile owner) mediates the relationship between experimental conditions (celebrity as aspirational outgroup vs same school student as an ingroup member vs different school student as an outgroup member) and the outcome variables (interpersonal attraction to the celebrity, involvement with ads, and advertising believability) in viral marketing leveraging a social media platform.Originality/valueThis study makes several theoretical contributions to consumer psychology and provides managerial implications for Facebook-based fashion marketing and fashion brand management.

Accommodation, social attraction, and intergroup attitudes on social media: the effects of outgroup self-presentation and ingroup accommodation

Social learning has been documented in a wide diversity of animals. In free-living animals, however, it has been difficult to discern whether animals learn socially by observing other group members or asocially by acquiring a new behaviour independently. We addressed this challenge by developing network-based diffusion analysis (NBDA), which analyses the spread of traits through animal groups and takes into account that social network structure directs social learning opportunities. NBDA fits agent-based models of social and asocial learning to the observed data using maximum-likelihood estimation. The underlying learning mechanism can then be identified using model selection based on the Akaike information criterion. We tested our method with artificially created learning data that are based on a real-world co-feeding network of macaques. NBDA is better able to discriminate between social and asocial learning in comparison with diffusion curve analysis, the main method that was previously applied in this context. NBDA thus offers a new, more reliable statistical test of learning mechanisms. In addition, it can be used to address a wide range of questions related to social learning, such as identifying behavioural strategies used by animals when deciding whom to copy.