CO <sub>2</sub> Emissions Reduction via 48V Active Engine-Off Coasting

<div class="htmlview paragraph">Hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) and other advanced propulsion technologies offer greater fuel economy and lower pollutant and tailpipe emissions. Some experts regard the HEV technology as a practical, attractive solution to social concerns about fuel economy (and related fossil fuel conservation) and vehicle emissions. [<span class="xref">Maples 98</span>] The technology is practical; however, an HEV is more expensive to produce than a conventional internal combustion engine (ICE). In a world of limited resources and many petroleum users and emissions sources, the policy question is whether the best use of resources is to build HEV, to improve the fuel economy and lower emissions from other sources, or to devote the resources to other environmental projects.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">We compare the second generation (designed for the United States) Toyota Prius, to the conventional internal combustion engine Toyota Corolla. We examine both private (vehicle purchase price, maintenance, and fuel) and social (the pollutant [non-methane organic gases, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides] and carbon dioxide emissions) costs. For each of the vehicles, we evaluate lifetime vehicle exhaust emissions as well as upstream emissions from producing the fuel.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">We find that the second generation Prius is still not cost-effective in improving fuel-economy and lowering emissions. For the Prius to be attractive to U.S. consumers, the price of gasoline would have to be more than three times greater than the present level. To be attractive to regulators, the social value of abating tailpipe emissions would have to be 14 times greater than conventional values. Alternatively, the value of abating greenhouse gas emissions would have to be at least $220 per ton. We judge that any HEV would have a difficult time competing with the Corolla because of the Corolla's already high fuel economy and low pollutant emissions.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">We also examine the costs and benefits of making a GM Silverado pickup truck into a gasoline hybrid. Like the analysis of the Prius, we again find that the price of gasoline or social value of abating carbon dioxide would have to be higher than the base case values in order to payback the cost of converting the vehicle to an HEV. Finally, we find that at current gasoline prices and carbon dioxide valuation, a conventional vehicle would need to have a fuel economy of 13 mpg or less in order for a $4,000 cost of converting it to an HEV to get 30% better fuel economy would pay off. We conclude that HEV will not have significant sales unless fuel prices rise several-fold or unless regulators mandate them.</div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">Controlled Auto-Ignition (CAI) combustion, also known as HCCI or PCCI, has recently emerged as a viable alternative combustion process to the conventional spark ignition (SI) or compression ignition (CI) process for internal combustion (IC) engines, owing to its potential for high efficiency and extremely low emissions. One of the most effective and practical means of achieving CAI combustion in an engine is to retain or recycle the burnt gases. In order to understand better the effects of recycled burnt gases on CAI combustion, detailed analytical and experimental studies have been carried out. The analytical studies were performed using an engine simulation model with detailed chemical kinetics.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The five effects of the recycled burned gases studied include:</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph"> <ol class="list nostyle"> <li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">(1.)</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">Charge heating effect: higher intake charge temperature due to hot burned gases;</div></li> <li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">(2.)</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">Dilution effect: the reduction of oxygen due to the presence of the burned gases;</div></li> <li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">(3.)</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">Heat capacity effect: due to higher specific heat capacity of burned gases;</div></li> <li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">(4.)</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">Chemical effect: chemical reactions involving CO<sub>2</sub> and H<sub>2</sub>O in the burned gases</div></li> <li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">(5.)</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">Stratification effect: recycled burned gases are stratified from the fuel/air mixture.</div></li> </ol> </div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">And the main conclusions are:</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph"> <ol class="list nostyle"> <li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">(1.)</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">The charge heating effect is mainly responsible for the advanced AI timing due to hot burned gases. It increases the heat release rate and shortens the combustion duration.</div></li> <li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">(2.)</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">The dilution effect does not affect AI timing, but it extends combustion duration. Its slows down the heat release rate only when large amount of burned gases is present.</div></li> <li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">(3.)</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">The heat capacity effect is mainly responsible for the reduction in the heat release rate, and it has a similar effect to extend the combustion duration as the dilution effect.</div></li> <li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">(4.)</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">The chemical effect does not affect AI timing and heat release rate. It reduces the combustion duration slightly at high concentrations of burned gases.</div></li> <li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">(5.)</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">The stratified burned gases facilitate the CAI combustion due to the presence of higher temperature region at the boundary between of the hot burned gases and combustible charge.</div></li> </ol> </div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">Several years ago some of the most prominent leaders in automotive industries cooperated to form a purely engineering group that had as its primary purpose developing a type of rigid-airship construction in which the public would have confidence. It was conceived that such an airship should be</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph"> <ol class="list nostyle"> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(1)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Fireproof</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(2)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Weatherproof</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(3)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Durable and permanent in structure</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(4)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Navigable in practically all kinds of weather</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(5)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Economical in the use of buoyant gas and ballast</div> </li> </ol> </div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">To meet all of these requirements it was decided, after mature consideration, that a substantially all-metal construction was imperative. Development of the Metalclad airship has now reached a point where the general soundness of the design seems fully assured as</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph"> <ol class="list nostyle"> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(1)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The structural and aerodynamic efficiencies have been established by both analytical and experimental methods</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(2)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The technical problems involved in the construction have been mastered to a certainty hitherto unapproached in any new design</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(3)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The general design of an airship of demonstration size, 200,000 cu. ft. or one-tenth the size of the Shenandoah, has been completed</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(4)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Full-sized structural members of every part of the framework have been built and tested to destruction revealing that the minimum safety factor is double that of the Shenandoah. The longitudinal strength of the metal hull will be more than four times as great as that of the Shenandoah</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(5)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The problem of riveting the metal hull-plating has been solved through the perfection of an automatic riveting-machine</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(6)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The problem of making the metal hull gas-tight has been solved with surprising efficiency indicating an osmosis of about one-tenth that through gold-beaters skin and only one-hundredth that through rubberized fabric</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(7)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">A suitable coating to prevent corrosion has been satisfactorily tested</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(8)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">A source of supply of aluminum alloys of dependable quality is assured</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(9)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Shop facilities for fabrication are available in Detroit</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(10)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Skilled metal-workers familiar with aluminum and its alloys are at hand</div> </li> </ol> </div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">These results depend upon certain fundamental principles that are described in the paper. In effect, the design is an entirely new one, but adheres to the fundamental unalterable principles underlying all sound engineering-work.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The paper states that the Metalclad airship is the last step in the development of rigid airships and most certainly must be adopted if such a means of transportation is to be made available both for the arms of National Defense and for commercial purposes.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Appendices that include extracts from studies and texts arranged to illustrate the subject matter in the main paper and furnish food for discussion supplement the paper. This material is partially elementary in form as limitations of space preclude any attempt at completeness.</div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Diesel aftertreatment (AT) systems are critical for controlling emissions of CO, HC, NO<sub>X</sub>, and PM in the on-road transportation sector. Ensuring compliance with regulatory standards throughout the AT system's lifespan requires precise prediction of various degradation mechanisms under real-world operating conditions and mitigating their impact through proper catalyst sizing and advanced controls. In the SwRI A2CAT-II consortium, a medium-duty diesel engine production aftertreatment system was subjected to full useful life aging, involving chemical poisoning with phosphorus (P) and sulfur (S) species, along with hydrothermal aging following the DAAAC protocol. This study was aimed to model and predict the aging trajectory of this production AT system thereby capturing changes in system dynamics under both steady-state and transient conditions. The system, designed to meet the 0.2 g/bhp-hr standard, comprised a Diesel Oxidation Catalyst (DOC), Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF), Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR), and Ammonia Slip Catalyst (ASC). It was aged to 3600 hours equivalent to the DAAAC protocol and tested across a series of steady-state and regulatory cycles (HFTP, RMC, and LLC) at degreened, 33%, 66%, and 100% aging points. A linear decrease in system NOx conversion was observed between 0% to 66% aging, followed by a nonlinear drop from 66% to 100%. The cumulative decline in NOx conversion was 0.8%, which could significantly impact systems designed to meet a 0.05 g/bhp-hr target.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">IntroductionAftertreatment durability demonstration is a mandatory validation exercise for on-road medium and heavy-duty diesel engine certification. This requirement ensures that the emission compliance can be achieved for the intended full useful life (FUL) of the engine system or multiple vehicle families. Conventional Deterioration Factor (DF) approach considers linear effect of sulfur and phosphorous poisoning on the catalysts over the entire useful life based on performance from 33% of aging the catalysts and extrapolating them to FUL. However, based on various studies, the impact of fuel derived Sulfur on diesel aftertreatment components was found to be exponentially significant particularly on the SCR due to the sulfur poisoning effect which require an active means to liberate sulfur to maintain appropriate SCR NOx conversion performance. Phosphorous from lubricating oil is known to adversely affect the activity of the oxidation catalyst in a catalyzed DPF thereby reducing the passive regenerative performance of DPF. For these reasons, an extensive understanding of chemical poisoning (particularly Sulfur and Phosphoros) and hydrothermal aging are warranted to design, validate and demonstrate the durability of aftertreatment components that are subjected to the prolonged chemical exposure.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">To address the extensive challenges in durability demonstration, the Diesel Aftertreatment Accelerated Aging Protocol, or DAAAC, was developed by Southwest Research Institute as a part of consortium effort that includes input from diesel engine manufacturers [<span class="xref">1</span>, <span class="xref">2</span>, <span class="xref">3</span>]. DAAAC is an accelerated aging cycle developed for each application based on the available field data. It includes the exposure from hydrothermal aging, sulfur and lubricant derived poison at accelerated rates. The protocol also requires the entire aftertreatment system to be aged as a complete system, since the upstream components, such as DOC, can impact the chemical makeup of sulfur derived constituents.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The protocol does not introduce chemical constituents not normally observed in the field. The accelerated chemical exposure rate is limited only to a degree that has previously demonstrated successful correlation to normal, unaccelerated aging. The Protocol also requires that chemical aging mechanisms are to be introduced and / or consumed in a manner representative of the engine’s defined consumption pathways. Examples include sulfur exposure via high sulfur fuel or gaseous SO<sub>2</sub> and oil consumption via pre-combustion / post-combustion pathways. The Protocol also does not introduce chemical components that are not normally present in oil or fuel (other than doping the fuel with higher concentrations of sulfur, but this amount is relatively small). A comprehensive step by step breakdown of DAAAC protocol is presented elsewhere [<span class="xref">2</span>].</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The primary objective of this paper is to disseminate the observation of long-term impacts of chemical poisoning and hydrothermal aging on a production aftertreatment catalyst subjected to FUL DAAAC protocol. The results of this experimental campaign were used to develop and validate a model capable of predicting hydrothermal and chemical aging mechanisms of conventional diesel aftertreatment to optimize long term emissions reduction performance. The paper is divided into following sections: <ol class="list nostyle"><li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">1</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">Introduction: An overview of the system</div></li><li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">2</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">Background: A review of literature in the field of diesel AT aging</div></li><li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">3</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">Test Campaign: Description of experimental setup used for collection of both steady state and transient data.</div></li><li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">4</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">Experimental setup: Description of burner stand used for data collection.</div></li><li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">5</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">Results and Discussion: Description of experimental results followed by discussion about underlying degradation mechanism identified through simulation work.</div></li><li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">6</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">Summary and conclusion</div></li></ol></div></div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">This report describes the possibility of quantitative analysis of Schlieren photographs as an internal combustion engine diagnostic.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Using a recently developed photographic analysis system, it was attempted to analyze Schlieren photographs. Results showed simple integration calculations produced significant distortion in the analyzed results. To eliminate the distortion, some correction techniques were developed in this research. Accuracy of the analyzed results were evaluated roughly with uncertainty analysis. The results showed that this analysis technique can be one of the approximate diagnostics for the measurement of fuel vapor and density distribution in internal combustion engine research.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph"><b>SCHLIEREN</b> photography is one of the most popular visualization techniques in the research of internal combustion engines. Although the photographs have density information in themselves, they are used mainly for the purpose of qualitative visualization. The objective of this research is to develop a quantitative analysis of Schlieren photographs for internal combustion engine research.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">One important parameter in engine research, for example, is the air entrainment in fuel jet vapor. Its measurement has previously been possible by gas sampling, laser holography, or laser Raman spectroscopy. The gas sampling method provides only point data, and the laser methods are very sensitive to vibration or optical settings. With this present Schlieren photographic analysis technique, it will be possible to measure instantaneously the whole space of the density field with a very simple optical system which is commonly used in engine research. Lakshminarayan and Dent(<span class="xref">1</span>)<span class="xref">*</span> analyzed interferometric photographs of jet sprays impinging on a wall. A major part of their (analysis method involved the counting of fringes which are sometimes difficult to distinguish in photographs. Nishida et al.(<span class="xref">2</span>)(<span class="xref">3</span>) analyzed Schlieren photographs reconstructed from laser holograms of jet vapor. However, they did not refer to the accuracy of the results.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">This report describes the background of the quantitative analysis and shows some analyzed results. The analysis was made for a CO2 jet injected into air. The Schlieren photographs were analyzed by an image processor and a personal computer.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The results showed that the elimination of integrated error due to non-uniform background level was one of the most important parameters to be considered. In this study, a correction method is shown to determine the non-uniform background level and also to improve the accuracy of the results. This report also describes analyzed results for transient free jets and wall-impinging jets, which were compared with experimental results.</div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">A chemical and physical characterization of particulate emitted in undiluted exhaust of single cylinder direct injection (D.I.) diesel engine was made by an optical technique.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">On-line scattering and extinction measurements in the spectral range from 200 to 500nm were carried out in the exhaust ofthe engine operating under steady-state conditions. These measurements provided a useful tool for the comprehension of chemical and physical structure of the particulate. They allowed the evaluation in real time of the size, the concentration and also the optical properties. Preliminary results of size and mass concentration of particulate are presented.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">A good agreement was observed comparing the results with those obtained by gravimetric measurements, TEM and X-ray diffraction.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph"><b>HIGH EFFICENCY OF DIESEL ENGINES</b> and their ability to burn heavy fuels make them ofgreat interest in the transportation field. On the other hand, present exhaust emission levels produced by this type ofengine will not satisfy stringent international regulations on environ- menta protection.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The studies of the chemical and physical structure of diesel particulate in the exhaust of the engine help manufacturers both to optimize the efficiency of the combustion process and give useful information to designers of after-treatment devices.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Historically, most studies on the particulate in the engine exhaust were carried out by electron microscopy and chemical analysis [<span class="xref">1</span>,<span class="xref">2</span>]<span class="xref">*</span>. These conventional techniques are time consuming, not real time, and not useful in transient operating conditions. Because the composition of the particulate materia depends on the collection system the data can be influenced by sampling procedures.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Size distribution measurementtechniques of particulate based on electrical mobility, diffusion and inertial separation were proposed by Dolanetal.[<span class="xref">3</span>]. These techniques are real time but intrusive and can change the size distribution through collisions between particles.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The recent advances in non-intrusive optical diagnostic techniques have made it possible to study on-line the evolution of particulate emitted in the exhaust with good temporal and spatial resolution.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">In the last decade, the optical measurements carried out in the exhaust, were made by nephetometry, transmissiometryor opacimetry, generally at a single wavelength in the visible range or in the infrared by photoacoustic and absorption measurements, These measurements are used to determine both the mass of particulate and the amount of dry soot and SOF [<span class="xref">4</span>,<span class="xref">5</span>,<span class="xref">6</span>,<span class="xref">7</span>.]</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">In particular, simultaneous light scattering and extinction measurements at a single wavelength in the visible have provided a fast method to determine the dimension and concentration of soot particles i n flame [<span class="xref">8</span>].</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The purpose of the present study is to demonstrate the feasibility and flexibility of a new optical technique applied in the undiluted exhaustof a D.I. diesel engine. The technique consists of the use of simultaneous spectral measurements of scattering and extinction coefficients from the near ultraviolet to visible. These measurements allow the on-line simultaneous evaluation of the size, concentration and particulate mass as well as estimating the optical properties of the particulate. In particular, optical measurements in the near ultraviolet region are particularly promising because both graphite and large aro- maticmolecules exhibit absorption bands between 200 and 350nm [<span class="xref">9</span>,<span class="xref">10</span>].</div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">As the community is becoming more and more aware and conscious of the pollution problems caused by the internal combustion engine and its use in transportation, we are now seeing the first projects and prototypes regarding hybrid and electrically-powered vehicles.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">One of the main problems witnessed by engineers has been that of the relatively low operating range provided by the storage batteries available on the market today, and so, recovering the energy that is inevitably lost during braking is of primary importance.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The concept of regenerative braking is fairly simple as it consists in making the electric motors function as generators.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">In many of today's applications we find two indipendent controls for the operation of the hydraulic brake and for the activation of regenerative braking. The choice on which braking mode to use, or in which sequence the two modes are to be used is left to the driver who, at the onset of braking, is forced to make mental considerations in order to activate the two braking modes in the right sequence. Furthermore, the driver must not forget to disable the regenerative function at the end of each stop.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">BREMBO has designed a braking system in which a single control, that is, the brake pedal, activates and disables in the right sequence the two different braking modes, thus allowing:</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph"> <ul class="list disc"> <li class="list-item"> <div class="htmlview paragraph">to maximize energy recovery by the electric motors each time the driver steps on the brake pedal;</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <div class="htmlview paragraph">the hydraulic brake to be used in addition to regenerative braking when the latter is not enough to produce the required deceleration.</div> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The proposed braking system is lightweight and versatile. It can be adapted to the different powertrain configurations seen on various electric vehicles.</div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Increasing concerns due to global warming have led to stringent regulation of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from diesel engines. Specifically, for GHG phase-2 regulation (2027), more than 4% improvement is needed when compared to phase-1 regulation (2017) in the light heavy-duty (LHD) diesel engine category. At the same time, California Air Resources Board (CARB) and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) have proposed the new Low NOx standards that require up to 90% reduction in tailpipe (TP) NOx emissions in comparison to the current TP NOx standards that were implemented in 2010. In addition, CARB and EPA have proposed new certification requirements – Low Load Cycle (LLC) and revised heavy-duty in-use testing (HDIUT) based on the moving average window (MAW) method that would require rigorous thermal management. Hence, strategies for simultaneous reduction in GHG and TP NOx emissions are required to meet future regulations.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">This paper presents potential pathways to achieve the GHG phase-2 and the ultra-low NOx (ULN) regulations with minimum changes in engine design, while meeting the constraints that need to be considered for engine performance stability, component durability, and vehicle drivability. Experimental evaluations were performed focusing on transient cycles such as heavy-duty Federal Test Procedure (hereafter referred as FTP), LLC, and custom transient cycles for HDIUT assessment. We used a model-year (MY) 2021 production Isuzu diesel engine and an advanced dual-dosing aftertreatment system comprising of a close-coupled SCR (ccSCR), diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC), diesel particulate filter (DPF), selective catalytic reduction (SCR), and Ammonia Slip Catalyst (ASC). Conventional thermal management techniques such as multi-injection, intake, and exhaust throttling were implemented to achieve the emissions targets. In addition to the proposed system design, this paper presents following test results from a full-scale system evaluation: <ol class="list nostyle"><li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">1</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">Achieve rapid and sustained turbine-out exhaust temperatures (>200°C) while meeting the engine-out emissions constraints for soot and total hydrocarbon (THC) emissions.</div></li><li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">2</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">A summary of TP NOx, TP N2O and GHG emissions over a composite FTP and LLC.</div></li><li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">3</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">HDIUT assessment results and observations for LLC and custom transient cycles.</div></li><li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">4</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">Robustness evaluation of TP NOx emissions for composite HDT, LLC and custom transient cycles by imposing component variations.</div></li></ol></div></div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Electric Vehicles is the new trend in automotive industry and differentiator is electric motors which are taking over a conventional internal combustion engine. One of the major challenges with electric vehicles is the efficiency of E-drives, which is mainly affected by motor operating temperatures. Temperature affects the motor characteristics (torque vs speed), which could result in motor underperform or even fail to perform. Hence, it is critical to develop and design a methodology which can accurately predict the electric motor thermal behaviour in advance or try different iterations before getting in to a detailed and extensive analysis. The correct identification of temperatures inside the motor at different drive cycles, has always been a challenge. Experimental validation of motors gives accurate temperature measurements, but it has dependencies on prototypes which costs heavily, and feedback is not available at design stage. Another way is to have detailed 3D Simulations at early stage of design, but it is time consuming for model building and solving which delays the design phase. To solve this, a combined hybrid method of 1D Lumped Parameter Thermal Network (LPTN) approach and 3D Conjugate heat transfer (CHT) approach is proposed. In the proposed approach, detailed multidisciplinary discretized 1D LPTN model method is developed to predict temperature distribution for input drive cycles. 1D LPTN model has fidelity to analyse any drive cycle and incorporate electromagnetic, mechanical and friction generated heat losses which gives reasonably accurate temperature identification at faster solving rates. After identifying the worst cases based on 1D analysis, detailed 3D CHT finite element analysis is used to understand the temperature sweeps, rises and hot spots on the motor components at shortlisted drive cycle cases. This hybrid (1D LPTN and 3D CHT) approach, will help in early design stage by predicting motor temperatures quickly and efficiently, which saves product development time. In this Hybrid approach, the 1D and 3D thermal models are optimised and then validated with test data to establish the method.</div></div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">A modified version of KIVA II code was used to perform three-dimensional calculations of combustion in a DI diesel engine. Both an ignition delay submodel and a different formulation of the fuel reaction rate were implemented and tested.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The experiments were carried out on a single cylinder D.I. diesel of 0.75 I displacement equipped with sensors to detect injection characteristics and indicated pressure. A fast acting sampling valve was also installed in the combustion chamber to allow the measurement of main pollutants during the combustion cycle, by an ensemble average technique. Computational and experimental results are compared and the discrepancies are discussed.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Today the demand for light duty engines that produce less emission and consume less fuel is increasing. Thus, if limits on CO<sub>2</sub> emissions are established, the direct injection diesel engine for light duty applications will become an attractive option. Also, manufacturers of heavy duty diesel engines are facing increasingly stringent emission standards. New research efforts aim at improving DI diesels emission behaviour.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Given the complexity of the interaction between the different processes in diesel combustion, comprehensive models of in-cylinder phenomena prove to be useful in providing guidelines for prototype development. Multidimensional analytical models of in cylinder phenomena have been greatly improved over the last decade, given the progress of the efficiency of computer hardware and diagnostic techniques. In particular many authors [<span class="xref">1</span>, <span class="xref">2</span>, <span class="xref">3</span>, <span class="xref">4</span>, <span class="xref">5</span>, <span class="xref">6</span> and <span class="xref">7</span>] have numerically simulated the interaction between the airflow field and the spray and have compared it with experimental data. However, both three dimensional calculations of combustion in the presence of fuel sprays and the corresponding comparisons with experimental data are hardly found in literature. In most cases the comparison between numerical and experimental results is limited to the pressure history and to the fitting of some pollutant emissions late in the expansion stroke.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">In particular, limiting the review to diesel combustion, Zellat and others [<span class="xref">8</span>] present calculations of a swirl chamber engine at different loads, injection timings, and speeds, obtained with a modified version of KIVA code. In their results, the computed in-cylinder pressure agrees well with the experimental one. Takeneka and others [<span class="xref">9</span>] used KIVA code to perform calculations of DI Diesel combustion for both swirl chamber and quiescent chamber systems. No details about the modifications introduced in the original code are provided.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Computational comparisons with in cylinder measurements, performed in a quiescent chamber system by Kamimoto [<span class="xref">10</span>], show discrepancies between computations and measurements. Gonzales and others [<span class="xref">11</span>] also used the KIVA II code with the Reitz atomization model and a single step Arrhenius mechanism to describe combustion of tetradecane in a D.I. quiescent chamber engine. The paper focuses on the spray submodel effect on the accuracy of pressure history prediction. It was demonstrated that, if adequate grid resolution is used, prediction of combustion is sensitive to the details of combustion and fuel injection models.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">In the present paper a detailed comparison between experiments with a fast acting sampling valve and 3D calculations is presented for a medium duty swirl supported DI engine. Calculations are performed by KI-VA II code with the adoption of the TAB jet break up sub-model and wall impingement modelling. In addition, a different formulation of combustion model is discussed. The current status of the “numerical engine program” in progress at Istituto Motori of CNR, is thus defined.</div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Future legislation scenarios as well as stringent CO<sub>2</sub> targets, in particular under real driving conditions, will require the introduction of new and additional powertrain technologies. Beside the increasing electrification of the powertrain, it will be essential to utilize the full potential of the Internal Combustion Engine (ICE). There is clearly a competition of new and different ICE-Technologies [<span class="xref">1</span>] including VCR. VCR systems are expected to be introduced to a considerable number of next generation turbocharged Spark Ignited (SI) engines in certain vehicle classes. The implementation of Miller or Atkinson cycles is an essential criterion for increased geometric Compression Ratio (CR). The DUAL MODE Variable Compression System (VCS)<sup>TM</sup> enables a 2-stage variation of the connecting rod length and thus of the compression ratio (CR). The concept allows a modular integration into existing engine families without significant modifications of the engine architecture and thus represents a cost-attractive solution. The basic functionality and potential were described in a technical paper which was presented at the SAE WCX 2017 [<span class="xref">2</span>], the development of the hydraulic function and oil investigations were presented at the SAE WCX 2018 [<span class="xref">3</span>].</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">This paper describes the engine integration of the Dual Mode VCS-system including the hydraulic control system into a state-of-the-art 2.0L-Turbo Gasoline Direct Injected (TGDI)-Engine for the vehicle boundaries of a midsize Sports Utility Vehicle (SUV).</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Switching strategies, as well as the importance of short switching duration under Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicle Test Procedure (WLTP) as well as Real Driving Emissions (RDE) requirements are discussed.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The applied fail-safe operation and Dual Mode VCS position control and detection will be described.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Finally, the Fuel Consumption (FC) impact of the Dual Mode VCS system is discussed. For the 2.0L-TGDI engine in the actual vehicle class, dependent on the load profile and the specific power and torque requirements a CO<sub>2</sub> reduction between 5% and up to 9% in the WLTP is achievable.</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Developing the most advanced wing panel assembly line for very high production rates required an innovative and integrated solution, relying on the latest technologies in the industry.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Looking back at over five decades of commercial aircraft assembly, a clear and singular vision of a fully integrated solution was defined for the new panel production line. The execution was to be focused on co-developing the automation, tooling, material handling and facilities while limiting the number of parties involved. Using the latest technologies in all these areas also required a development plan, which included pre-qualification at all stages of the system development.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Planning this large scale project included goals not only for the final solution but for the development and implementation stages as well.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The results: <ul class="list disc"><li class="list-item"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Design/build philosophy reduced project time and the number of teams involved. This allowed for easier communication and extended development time well into the project.</div></li><li class="list-item"><div class="htmlview paragraph">All design teams (machine, tooling, automation, controls) collocated and worked together on integration during all stages of development and implementation for the highest level of integration.</div></li><li class="list-item"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Innovative integration of the tooling and the automated equipment evolved throughout project with the teams working as one group.</div></li><li class="list-item"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Latest fastening technology using all electric, ball-screw squeeze riveting was developed for high-speed and robust automated fastening.</div></li><li class="list-item"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Latest mobilization technology was used to make the automated fastening machines interchangeable to reduce MTTR and to enable more PPM activities offline without affecting production.</div></li><li class="list-item"><div class="htmlview paragraph">More automation was also introduced for tool changing and to the material handling systems for more consistent processing and to reduce operator intervention.</div></li><li class="list-item"><div class="htmlview paragraph">All systems were developed together for full integration and to enable more safety interlocks and HMI for simplified operation.</div></li><li class="list-item"><div class="htmlview paragraph">A 30 month schedule for the complete large scale assembly line was maintained to support the new aircraft launch schedule.</div></li></ul></div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The final solution was a coherent, streamlined and efficient assembly line capable of very high aircraft production rates (<span class="xref">Figure 1</span>).</div><div class="htmlview paragraph"><figure id="F1" class="figure"><div class="graphic-wrapper"><img class="article-figure figure" src="2015-01-2492_fig0001.jpg" alt="PAL, automation cell, Line 4, Position 1 (L4P1)"/></div><span class="label">Figure 1</span><figcaption class="caption"><span class="title">PAL, automation cell, Line 4, Position 1 (L4P1)</span></figcaption></figure></div></div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph"><b>Background</b>: The Indian automobile industry, including the auto component industry, is a significant part of the country’s economy and has experienced growth over the years. India is now the world’s 3<sup>rd</sup> largest passenger car market and the world’s second-largest two-wheeler market. Along with the boon, the bane of road accident fatalities is also a reality that needs urgent attention, as per a study titled ‘Estimation of Socio-Economic Loss due to Road Traffic Accidents in India’, the socio-economic loss due to road accidents is estimated to be around 0.55% to 1.35% of India’s GDP [<span class="xref">27</span>] Ministry of road transport and highways (MoRTH) accident data shows that the total number of fatalities on the road are the highest (in number terms) in the world. Though passenger car occupant fatalities have decreased over the years, the fatalities of vulnerable road users are showing an increasing trend. India has committed to reduce road fatalities by 50% by 2030. In this context, the automotive industry as well as MoRTH have been taking multiple initiatives including those related to vehicular and road engineering as well as educational measures for raising awareness in the field of road safety.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">With the intent of lowering road traffic accidents, the government and the ministry are constantly upgrading the requirements related to vehicles, infrastructures, and their implementation thereof. In this context, various future regulations are being deliberated. One such regulation in discussion pertains to requirements for the protection of the passenger car occupants in the event of a full-frontal collision with a focus on restraint systems (AIS 201). This will push manufacturers to design more sophisticated restraints that would help to reduce restraint-induced injuries. The draft version of the standard is available for public input/ discussion.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The key objective of the study documented herein is to consider various aspects of the draft standard (AIS 201) from the Indian perspective. This study investigates the research questions, enumerated below: <ol class="list nostyle"><li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">1</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">What should be the appropriate test speed for the full-frontal test based on Indian accident data?</div></li><li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">2</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">What is the suitable dummy configuration in terms of gender, seating position, and age to maximize occupant safety in full frontal accidents?</div></li><li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">3</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">Is the proposed ATD’s anthropometry (weight and height) suitable, based on the people involved in full frontal cases in India?</div></li><li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">4</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">What are occupant injury attributes in full-frontal accidents?</div></li></ol></div><div class="htmlview paragraph"><b>Key findings/ expected research findings</b>: India has a very different mix of road traffic users and road traffic fatalities compared to that in Europe (Refer to <span class="xref">Table 1</span>). Further, issues like seat belt usage are of utmost concern. The demographic for India is also very different from those of developed economies. With India being a country with a rather young population, male and female dummies for driver and front passenger positions should be looked upon. This calls for India-specific safety regulations and research work on automotive test dummies.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph"><b>Practical implications</b>: The study can potentially provide a suggestion for alignment of the regulatory requirements with the actual situations, thereby increasing the effectiveness of the standard.</div></div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">This is an analysis of spring action such as occurs on an automobile driven on a highway having bumps and depressions, a discussion of the requirements of spring-recoil checking devices, and an account of experiments made with a car on which different combinations of springs of various lengths and flexibilities were used and the distribution of weight on the frame was varied. Spring action was analyzed previously by means of small models that simulated the suspension and weight distribution of a motor-car. The compression and recoil action of springs and their relation to the travel of the car as represented by the time element are discussed. Although the more-flexible springs absorb the bumps better, it is shown that their recoil is greater unless it is damped by a shock-absorbing device.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The limitations of shock-absorber or recoil-check design are pointed out and the author asserts that a device that never allows the springs to reach their normal position stiffens the springs and increases the riding-discomfort. Obviously, the more the springs are tied-down the stiffer they become and the less capable of depression when striking a bump. That interleaf friction can be a satisfactory means of taking-up spring recoil is an erroneous belief that must be discarded, is asserted, and the greatest improvement in riding-comfort that can be made in the average car by the owner at reasonable expense is to grease the springs well, put on spring covers and automatic lubricators, and fit shock-absorbers that resist the spring recoil but do not make the springs stiffer on the bumps.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">To check conclusions arrived at from analysis and casual observations, experiments were made with a car on the road. These are illustrated and described. As a result of the study and the limited number of road experiments made up to the time of writing, the author concludes that</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph"> <ol class="list nostyle"> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(1)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Front springs must be shackled at the front end or so mounted that full spring-travel can occur without changing the direction of the front wheels; heavier master leaves may be required for safety, and one or two rather heavy leaves above them will make the axle stable under application of four-wheel brakes</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(2)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Longer front springs must be used and room for spring action must be increased to at least 4 in.</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(3)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Internal friction of the springs must not exceed 10 per cent of the normal weight they support, and if leaf springs are used they must be lubricated</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(4)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Efficient devices that will check the spring recoil at the proper time and not restrict the yield of the springs on bumps or when the wheels drop into road depressions must be fitted</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(5)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The procedure in developing the spring-suspension of a car should be changed; the tests with new models prior to production should be made with springs of various lengths and flexibilities and with various distributions of weight on the frame. With different body-models it may be necessary to use springs of different characteristics</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(6)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Every effort should be made, under present limitations of passenger-car design, to locate the weight over the axles rather than between them</div> </li> </ol> </div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Conventional charging systems for electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles currently use cables to connect to the grid. This methodology creates several disadvantages, including tampering, risk, depreciation and non-value added user efforts. Loose or faulty cables may also create a safety issue. Wireless charging for electric vehicles delivers both a simple, reliable and safe charging process. The system enhances consumer adoption and promotes the integration of electric vehicles into the automotive market. Increased access to the grid enables a higher level of flexibility for storage management, increasing battery longevity.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The power class of 3.7kW or less is an optimal choice for global standardization and implementation, due to the readily available power installations for potential customers throughout the world. One of the key features for wireless battery chargers are the inexpensive system costs, reduced content and light weight, easing vehicle integration.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">This paper demonstrates a wireless charging design with minimal component content. It includes a car pickup coil with 300 mm side length and low volume and mass 1.5 dm<sup>3</sup> power interface electronics. After an overview of its hardware requirements, power transfer and efficiency benefits are presented, providing the anticipated horizontal and lateral deviations.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">An intense magnetic field is required to transfer the target power at low volumes between the transfer units. This field heats up any metal object over the transfer coil, similar to an induction oven. Consequently, the system should be powered down whenever a metal object is detected in this area. A Foreign Object Detection (FOD) design has been developed to continuously monitor the critical high field area. Device testing results are also provided.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Field characteristics are verified alongside the vehicle, ensuring system safety for living beings; compliant with all applicable standards reference limits which is more challenging than the basic limits [<span class="xref">13</span>].</div></div>